The Cell, International Eighth Edition Student Resources

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Molecules and Membranes

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

Genes and Genomes

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

RNA Synthesis and Processing

Transcriptional Regulation and Epigenetics

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

The Nucleus

Protein Sorting and Transport

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cell Signaling

The Cell Cycle

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Cancer

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Paramecium caudatum feeds on bacteria and other small cells via a deep oral groove that contains compound oral cilia used to draw in food.

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Super-resolution microscopy techniques allow the capture of images with a higher resolution than the diffraction limit of visible light.

Molecules and Membranes

All proteins are made out of the same twenty amino acids, combined and folded in different ways—this 3D structure is critical for protein function.

Molecules and Membranes

Cholesterol molecules in a cell membrane influence the arrangement of the phospholipids in the bilayer.

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

ATP synthase generates ATP from ADP and phosphate using a rotary mechanism that turns about 150 times every second.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

RNA interference (RNAi) is an important process that regulates the activity of genes via small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs).

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

C. elegans is an important model organism used in the study of molecular and developmental biology.

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

In DNA replication, both strands of the double helix act as templates for the formation of new DNA molecules, using two different mechanisms.

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

In E. coli, mismatch repair is facilitated by the lack of methylation on the newly-synthesized DNA strands.

RNA Synthesis and Processing

During transcription, DNA is read by RNA polymerase, which produces a complementary RNA strand.

RNA Synthesis and Processing

The splicing process removes non-coding regions (introns) from the RNA transcript, leaving only protein-coding regions in the final mRNA.

Transcriptional Regulation and Epigenetics

Epigenetic regulation of gene expression includes a number of different types of modification to the chromatin.

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

In translation, mRNA is decoded by a ribosome to produce a specific amino acid sequence—a protein.

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

Computer simulations of the complexities of protein folding have provided important insights into the process.

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the formation of beta amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, which impede neuronal communication.

The Nucleus

The nuclear pore complex consists of an assembly of spokes attached to rings surrounding a central channel.

The Nucleus

Proteins pass through the nuclear pore complex by a selective transport process.

Protein Sorting and Transport

Proteins are transported from the ER to the Golgi apparatus and from the Golgi to the plasma membrane.

Protein Sorting and Transport

Transport vesicles bud from the trans-Golgi network and deliver their secretory cargo to their destinations.

Protein Sorting and Transport

After processing in the Golgi apparatus, proteins are transported to the plasma membrane.

Protein Sorting and Transport

Transport vesicles move between the ER, Golgi, and cell membrane along cytoskeletal filaments.

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

In most cells, mitochondria exist as part of a large interconnected network.

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

Continual fusion and fission events remodel the mitochondrial network and modify morphology and function.

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Lamellipodia are sheetlike extensions at the leading edge of fibroblasts.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Cell movement across a surface involves extension of the leading edge, attachment, and retraction.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The formation of lamellipodia during cell movement is based on the assembly and disassembly of actin filaments.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Vesicles are transported through the cytoplasm along microtubules by kinesin and dynein.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Microtubules and associated motor proteins move mitochondria within the cell.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Cilia cover the surface of some protozoans and are responsible for cell motility and directing food particles into the oral cavity.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Flagella are used for locomotion by a variety of protozoans and by sperm.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

In animals, the coordinated motion of cilia can move fluid or mucus over a surface.

The Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is composed of a fluid lipid bilayer.

The Plasma Membrane

Lipid rafts are small, transient, semisolid patches in the plasma membrane composed of cholesterol and sphingolipids.

The Plasma Membrane

A clathrin-coated pit first forms on the surface of the membrane, then buds and pinches off inside the cell, forming the vesicle.

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Focal adhesions are large protein complexes through which mechanical force and regulatory signals are transmitted between the extracellular matrix and an interacting cell.

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

The dynamic assembly and disassembly of focal adhesions plays a central role in cell migration.

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cadherins are transmembrane proteins essential for cell–cell adhesion and are dependent on calcium ions to function.

Cell Signaling

Receptor tyrosine kinases bind many polypeptide growth factors, cytokines, and hormones to initiate signal transduction.

The Cell Cycle

Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic phase of an animal cell cycle.

The Cell Cycle

Fission yeast divide by medial fission to produce two daughter cells of equal sizes, which makes them a powerful tool in cell cycle research.

The Cell Cycle

Mitosis is the most dramatic stage of the cell cycle, corresponding to the separation of daughter chromosomes and usually ending with cell division.

The Cell Cycle

During mitosis, the chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down, the cytoskeleton forms the mitotic spindle, and the chromosomes move to opposite poles.

The Cell Cycle

The spindle assembly checkpoint monitors the alignment of chromosomes on the metaphase spindle.

The Cell Cycle

During metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center of the spindle, and at anaphase, the sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the spindle.

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Cells differentiate into a wide range of cell types, including blood cells, epithelial cells, adipocytes, vascular smooth muscle cells, nerve cells, and even beating heart muscle cells.

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Methods have been developed to direct the differentiation of both mouse and human embryonic stem cells into various types of neurons.

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Somatic cell nuclear transfer is used to produce clones of cells with the same genetic background as the donor nucleus.

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Programmed cell death is an active process which usually proceeds by a distinct series of cellular changes known as apoptosis.

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

The cell surface receptor Fas plays important roles in controlling cell death in the immune system.

Cancer

Rather than responding appropriately to the signals that control normal cell behavior, cancer cells grow and divide in an uncontrolled manner.

Cancer

Tumor cells migrate over one another and grow in a disordered, multilayered pattern.

Cancer

The disruption of tumor suppressor gene expression causes the cancerous cell to divide when it should not.

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

After cells are broken apart, the subcellular constituents are fractionated using different types of centrifugation.

Molecules and Membranes

The polymerization of sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides to form polysaccharides, polypeptides, and nucleic acids, respectively, occurs through covalent bonding.

Molecules and Membranes

In a chemical reaction, an enzyme lowers the amount of energy required to reach the transition state, allowing the reaction to proceed at an accelerated rate.

Molecules and Membranes

In this example, an enzyme brings two substrates together to facilitate their reaction with each other.

Molecules and Membranes

Molecules that cross a membrane in an energetically favorable direction do so by passive transport.

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Glycolysis is the initial stage in the breakdown of glucose, resulting in two molecules of pyruvate and a net gain of two molecules of ATP.

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

The citric acid cycle is the central pathway in oxidative metabolism and completes the oxidation of glucose to six molecules of carbon dioxide.

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

During the light reactions of photosynthesis, energy absorbed from sunlight drives the synthesis of ATP and NADPH, coupled to the oxidation of H20 to 02.

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

In the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis, six molecules of carbon dioxide are used to generate a molecule of glucose.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

A nonpathogenic strain of Pneumococcus can be transformed into a pathogenic strain by taking up DNA fragments from the pathogenic strain and incorporating them into its chromosome.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Through a series of experiments in 1944, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty established that the transforming principle (genetic material) is DNA.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

The central dogma of molecular biology, as first stated by Francis Crick, asserts that information flows from DNA to RNA, and then from RNA to protein.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

A single base-pair mutation in the coding region of a gene can result in a prematurely terminated polypeptide or in a polypeptide with an incorrect amino acid in its amino acid chain, depending on the particular mutation.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

As part of a replication cycle within a host cell, a retrovirus uses the enzyme reverse transcriptase to copy its RNA genome into DNA.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Restriction endonucleases cleave DNA at specific sequences, leaving staggered or blunt ends on the resulting DNA fragments.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

A DNA fragment is cloned by being inserted into a vector that replicates in a host cell.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

One method of DNA sequencing involves a modified DNA synthesis reaction using chainterminating fluorescent nucleotides, which can be identified by automated detection systems.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

The polymerase chain reaction allows the production of millions of copies of a DNA fragment from just one starting DNA molecule.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

At high temperatures, the complementary strands of DNA separate, and then when they are cooled, they reform double-stranded molecules as dictated by complementary base pairing.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

DNA fragments are separated by size using gel electrophoresis, and then—as part of the Southern blotting technique—they are incubated with a labeled DNA probe to identify specific DNA fragments.

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Monoclonal antibodies can be made by inoculating an animal (such as a mouse) with an antigen, providing the animal time to mount an immune response, collecting the B cells from the animal, and then fusing the B cells to long-lived myeloma cells—thereby creating hybridomas that can be tested for the production of useful antibodies.

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

In next-generation DNA sequencing, millions of templates are sequenced simultaneously, dramatically increasing the speed of sequencing.

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

DNA microarrays allow expression of tens of thousands of genes to be analyzed simultaneously.

Genes and Genomes

In alternative splicing, the multiple exons of a gene can be joined in different combinations to produce distinct mRNAs and proteins from a single primary RNA transcript.

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

Helicase, primase, and two molecules of DNA polymerase III carry out the coordinated synthesis of both the leading and lagging strands of DNA at a replication fork.

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

During B cell development, site-specific recombination joins regions of the immunoglobulin light-chain genes, leading to the production of unique immunoglobulin light chains.

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

Site-specific recombination between three regions leads to the formation of immunoglobulin heavychain genes.

RNA Synthesis and Processing

Eukaryotic cells must process the RNA product of transcription to form a mature, translatable messenger RNA.

Transcriptional Regulation and Epigenetics

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

Translation is RNA-directed polypeptide synthesis.

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

By attaching a chain of ubiquitin molecules to a protein, a eukaryotic cell marks the protein for rapid degradation by a protease complex.

The Nucleus

Proteins are targeted to or from the nucleus by virtue of having nuclear localization signals or nuclear export signals, respectively, allowing the proteins to be recognized by receptors that direct their transport through the nuclear pore complex.

Protein Sorting and Transport

In mammals, proteins enter the ER primarily by a cotranslational pathway, a process that requires a signal sequence on the newly forming protein.

Protein Sorting and Transport

The Golgi apparatus is composed of flattened membrane-enclosed sacs that receive proteins from the ER, process them, and sort them to their eventual destinations.

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

A proplastid with inner and outer membranes develops into a mature chloroplast with a third membrane system—the thylakoid membranes.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Actin monomers polymerize to form actin filaments, a process that is reversible and is regulated within the cell by actin-binding proteins.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The thin filaments of skeletal muscle consist of actin filaments decorated with tropomyosin–troponin complexes covering the myosin binding sites.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Tubulin dimers can polymerize as well as depolymerize to assemble or break down microtubules.

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

The arrival of a nerve impulse at the terminus of a neuron triggers synaptic vesicles to fuse with the plasma membrane, thereby releasing the neurotransmitter.

The Plasma Membrane

The sodium and potassium ion gradients across the plasma membrane are maintained by the Na+-K+ pump, which hydrolyzes ATP to fuel the transport of these ions against their electrochemical gradients.

The Plasma Membrane

Receptor molecules in the plasma membrane cluster in clathrin-coated pits, become bound to specific macromolecules from outside the cell, and then pinch off in the form of clathrin-coated vesicles.

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cell wall formation in plants requires the synthesis of cellulose chains by enzyme complexes in the plasma membrane.

Cell Signaling

In endocrine signaling, hormones act on distant target cells; in paracrine signaling, a molecule released from a cell acts on nearby targets; and in autocrine signaling, a cell produces a signaling molecule to which it also responds.

Cell Signaling

The largest family of cell surface receptors transmits signals inside the cell by activating G proteins, which bind GTP and then activate effector proteins.

Cell Signaling

In a signal transduction cascade, each enzyme activated at a stage in the cascade may activate numerous molecules of the next enzyme, quickly amplifying the response to the receptor-bound ligand.

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle of most eukaryotic cells is divided into four discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2.

The Cell Cycle

During early embryonic cell cycles, the cells do not grow, but instead divide into progressively smaller cells.

The Cell Cycle

Several checkpoints function throughout the cell cycle to ensure that complete genomes are transmitted to daughter cells.

The Cell Cycle

Maturation promoting factor (MPF)—consisting of cyclin B and Cdk1—regulates the transition from G2 to M phase of the cell cycle.

The Cell Cycle

Mitosis is the division of the nucleus. It consists of four phases—prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase—and is followed by the division of the cytoplasm, called cytokinesis.

The Cell Cycle

During cell division, a plant cell divides its cytoplasm by depositing Golgi vesicles containing cell wall precursors at the former site of the metaphase plate, building a larger and larger disk-like structure that grows toward and fuses with the plasma membrane.

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Programmed cell death is an active process that usually proceeds by a distinct series of cellular changes known as apoptosis.

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Many forms of cell stress activate the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis—a pathway that leads to the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, the activation of caspase-9, and the subsequent death of the cell.

Cancer

A cancer begins when one altered cell gives rise to a proliferative cell population, forming a primary tumor from which cells can break away and form secondary tumors elsewhere in the body.

Cancer

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Genes and Genomes

The Nucleus

Protein Sorting and Transport

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

The Cell Cycle

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Molecules and Membranes

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

Genes and Genomes

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

RNA Synthesis and Processing

Transcriptional Regulation and Epigenetics

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

The Nucleus

Protein Sorting and Transport

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cell Signaling

The Cell Cycle

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Cancer

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Molecules and Membranes

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

Genes and Genomes

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

RNA Synthesis and Processing

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

The Nucleus

Protein Sorting and Transport

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cell Signaling

The Cell Cycle

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Cancer

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Molecules and Membranes

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

Genes and Genomes

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

RNA Synthesis and Processing

Transcriptional Regulation and Epigenetics

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

The Nucleus

Protein Sorting and Transport

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cell Signaling

The Cell Cycle

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Cancer

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Molecules and Membranes

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

Genes and Genomes

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

RNA Synthesis and Processing

Transcriptional Regulation and Epigenetics

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

The Nucleus

Protein Sorting and Transport

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cell Signaling

The Cell Cycle

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Cancer

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Molecules and Membranes

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

Genes and Genomes

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

RNA Synthesis and Processing

Transcriptional Regulation and Epigenetics

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

The Nucleus

Protein Sorting and Transport

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cell Signaling

The Cell Cycle

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Cancer

Introduction to Cells and Cell Research

Molecules and Membranes

Bioenergetics and Metabolism

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology

Genes and Genomes

Replication, Maintenance, and Rearrangements of Genomic DNA

RNA Synthesis and Processing

Transcriptional Regulation and Epigenetics

Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation

The Nucleus

Protein Sorting and Transport

Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, and Peroxisomes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

The Plasma Membrane

Cell Walls, the Extracellular Matrix, and Cell Interactions

Cell Signaling

The Cell Cycle

Cell Death and Cell Renewal

Cancer

Geoffrey M. Cooper, The Cell, International Eighth Edition Student Resources

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Chapter 1 Overview

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Chapter 13 Overview

Chapter 14 Overview

Chapter 15 Overview

Chapter 16 Overview

Chapter 17 Overview

Chapter 18 Overview

Chapter 19 Overview

Chapter 20 Overview

Video 1.1 Paramecium Feeding

Video 1.2 Super-Resolution Light Microscopy

Video 2.1 What Is a Protein?

Video 2.2 Ordering Effect of Cholesterol in a Lipid Bilayer

Video 3.1 ATP Synthase in Action

Video 4.1 RNA Interference

Video 5.1 A Brief Introduction to C. elegans

Video 7.1 Mechanism of DNA Replication

Video 7.2 Methyl-Directed Mismatch Repair

Video 8.1 DNA Transcription

Video 8.2 RNA Splicing

Video 9.1 Epigenetic Mechanisms

Video 10.1 mRNA Translation

Video 10.2 Protein Folding Simulation

Video 10.3 Mechanisms of Alzheimer's Disease

Video 11.1 The Nuclear Pore Complex

Video 11.2 Into the Nucleus

Video 12.1 Transport through the Secretory Pathway

Video 12.2 Budding from the Golgi Apparatus

Video 12.3 Post-Golgi Transport

Video 12.4 Vesicle Trafficking

Video 13.1 Mitochondrial Networks

Video 13.2 Mitochondrial Dynamics

Video 13.3 Chloroplasts in Elodea

Video 14.1 Lamellipodia

Video 14.2 Cell Movement

Video 14.3 Actin Filament Induced Movement

Video 14.4 Vesicle Movement along Microtubules

Video 14.5 Mitochondrial Movement

Video 14.6 Ciliate Movement

Video 14.7 Flagellum in Euglena

Video 14.8 Coordinated Motion of Cilia

Video 15.1 Membrane Fluidity

Video 15.2 Lipid Raft Turnover

Video 15.3 Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis

Video 16.1 Focal Adhesions

Video 16.2 Focal Adhesion Dynamics

Video 16.3 Cadherins

Video 17.1 Receptor Tyrosine Kinases

Video 18.1 Mitosis in Real Time

Video 18.2 Fission Yeast Division

Video 18.3 Mitosis

Video 18.4 Mitosis with Fluorescent Proteins

Video 18.5 Spindle Assembly Checkpoint

Video 18.6 Metaphase and Anaphase

Video 19.1 Differentiated Cardiac Beating Cells

Video 19.2 Controlling Stem Cells with Light

Video 19.3 Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

Video 19.4 Apoptosis

Video 19.5 Apoptosis Induced By Fas Activation

Video 20.1 Normal vs. Cancer Cells

Video 20.2 Breast Cancer Cells Dividing

Video 20.3 Tumor Suppressor Gene Regulation

Animation 1.1 Subcellular Fractionation

Animation 2.1 Bond Formation

Animation 2.2 Catalysts and Activation Energy

Animation 2.3 Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions