Innovation and Adaptation in the Western Christian World, 600–1450 CE

Associations of artisans and merchants intended to protect and promote affairs of common interest.

The French representative assembly, composed of the three social "estates" in France, first convened by Philip IV.

The medieval European system of self-sustaining agricultural estates.

A term initiated by William I to designate feudal vassals who held lands in return for service and loyalty to the king.

The period 1378-1417, marked by divided papal allegiances in Latin Christendom.

The urban-based middle class between the wealthy aristocracy and the working class.

A written order issued by a court, commanding the party to whom it is addressed to perform or cease performing a specified act.

A trade network of allied ports along the North Sea and Baltic coasts, founded in 1256.

A medieval method of determining theological and philosophical truth by using Aristotelian logic.

An arrangement in which vassals were protected and maintained by their lords, usually through the granting of fiefs, and required to serve under them in war.

All territories within France controlled directly by the king.

A representative assembly in England that, by the fourteenth century, was composed of great lords (both lay and ecclesiastical) and representatives from two other groups: shire knights and town burgesses.

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