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Language Diversity
For people who command more than one language, code-switching—the practice of alternating between the languages they know—is a fact of life. Below are some examples of this phenomenon:
In this video, a small child is talking to his mother, who speaks mainly Indonesian, and to his father, who speaks mainly French. Both parents also throw in the occasional bits of English. All this is fertile ground for a lifetime of code-switching habits. The child’s own speech incorporates all three languages:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wgWQoZz6nEk
The following example comes from a formal study of code-switching, embedded in an excerpt from a lecture by researcher Mark Hancock:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPhwahhMKgw
There are many reasons why people might alternate between their languages, even when talking to one person (who also knows the same languages)—as Mark Hancock emphasized in the example above, the switch is not random. Some of these reasons might have to do with ease of processing, allowing the speaker to produce whichever forms are most accessible at the moment. Other reasons might have to do with the structure of the discourse, with one language being used mainly to accomplish one kind of discourse goal, and the other being used for other purposes. But one very important driver of code-switching is that it allows speakers to access the identities, associations, and experiences that come bundled with their different languages. For example, it is common for bilingual people to describe the events of their day at work in one language, but then to slide into another language when talking about home and family. Some bilinguals report being inclined to speak one of their languages when they want to unwind, or when they want to express closeness with certain people in their lives.
Code-switching applies not just to separate languages, but also to distinct dialects, with the switch happening for many of the same reasons. Linguist John McWhorter (1998) discusses several examples of code-switching as a way of expressing a bicultural identity, noting that speakers tend to identify one language that is most closely aligned with their cultural identity, and that they are more likely to use this when the topic is informal or intimate. In the following example, a Mexican woman code-switches between English and Spanish. McWhorter points out that she uses Spanish to enact the more dramatic aspects of the story of her cigarette addiction:
And they tell me, “How did you quit, Mary?” I didn’t quit. I just stopped. I mean, it wasn’t an effort that I made. Que voy a dejar de fumar porque me hace daño o [that I’m going to stop smoking because it’s bad for me or] this or that, uh-uh. It’s just that… I used to pull butts out of the wastepaper basket, yeah. Se me acacaban los cigarros [I would run out of cigarettes] en la noche [in the middle of the night]. I’d get desperate, y ahí voy al basurero a buscar, a sacar [and I’d go to the trashcan to look, to get some] you know? No traía cigarros Camille [Camille didn’t have any cigarettes], no traía Helen, no traía yo, el Sr. de Léon [Helen didn’t have any, I didn’t, Mr. Leon didn’t] and I saw Dixie’s bag crumpled up, so I figures she didn’t have any, y ahí ando en los ceniceros buscando a ver donde estaba la [and I’m going there into the ashtrays looking to see where the]… I didn’t care whose they were.
In similar ways, African Americans might code-switch between standard English and Black English, as shown in this passage from Glora Naylor’s Mama Day:
“We ain’t staying long,” Ruby says, pulling up a chair. “But I thought it might be nice for us to meet Cocoa’s new husband.”
“It’s a pleasure,” George says.
“Doubly mine,” says Ruby. “And this here is my new husband, Junior Lee.”
“Pleasssurrre.” Junior Lee manages a nod. “Hear you a big railroad man.”
“No, I’m an engineer.”
“That’s what I hear. Ain’t never been on the railroad myself, except hopping a few freights.”
“No, baby, he’s an engineer.” Ruby pats Junior Lee’s arm.
“That’s telling him.” Ruby smiles. “It’s good you ain’t lost your tongue—like some done lost their manners.”
“I ain’t wanted to come anyway.” Junior Lee sulks. “And I got business if you throughhh.”
“Just a few more minutes, baby.” Ruby pats his arm again, but Junior Lee snatches it away and gets up.
“If you stay, you’re walkinnng home.”
“My boy loves to tease,” Ruby says. “But we do gotta be going. Mama Day, them peaches is for you.”
Here is McWhorter’s analysis:
In these passages, Ruby uses Black English constructions such as “It’s good you ain’t lost your tongue,” “like some done lost their manners,” and “them peaches is for you,” but also uses the standard verb form in “My boy loves to tease” (rather than the Black English “My boy love to tease”) and “This here is my new husband” rather than “This here my husband.” Junior Lee does not use a verb to be in “Hear you a big railroad man” and “I got business if you throughhh,” but does in “If you stay, you’re walkinnng home.” As is typical of nonstandard dialects in code-switching, the use of Black English is tied to degree of informality or intimacy. Ruby uses Black English most consistently when getting a dig in at her husband, which involves getting down to “heart matters.” (“It’s good you ain’t lost your tongue—like some done lost their manners.”) Junior Lee uses more Black English in general, in reflection of his joking, rascally, informal character. In general, the environment is one in which standard and Black English compose an expressive tonal palette richer than is typical of many more monodialectal white Americans.
In some American social circles, Black English still bears a social stigma, and for this reason, some bidialectal African American parents choose to raise their children as monodialectal. In the following video clip (from 6:48 to 7:45) one such parent expresses his ambivalence about this decision, recognizing what his children lose in expressive potential:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RSUMnOVlp1M
References
McWhorter, J. (1998) Word on the Street. New York: Basic Books.
Naylor, G. (1989) Mama Day. New York: Random House.