10

1

What Act is the main basis for the promotion of equality and prevention of discrimination in the UK?

Equality Act 2010

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2

Which social grade has the highest level of certainty to vote in general elections?

AB

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3

What are some of the different ways – traditional and otherwise – in which can attain political representation for their identity?

Traditionally, a prevailing view was that political institutions represented the whole of society, even if they were not allowed to vote and if no-one sharing some of their characteristics held office.

Over time, political reform removed bars on people holding office and voting on a basis of their personal characteristics, partly on the grounds that these changes would create a more inclusive political community.

Descriptive representation - that is, political representatives reflecting the diverse characteristics of wider society - is a further form of representation for identity.

Substantive representation is actual representation of the interests of given groups. Some hold that descriptive representation is necessary if substantive representation is meaningfully to be achieved. But even if descriptive representation is achieved, there may be barriers within institutions to members of previously excluded groups achieving full influence.

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4

What forms does power take in society?

Power can involve public activities, such as elections and votes in the UK Parliament, taken in accordance with formal, open rules.

It can occur in more closed spaces – such as formal meetings of the UK Cabinet, which are confidential; or in informal meetings between politicians.

Power can also involve the shaping of the scope of processes themselves, by determining the overall nature of debate, ensuring that some options appear on the agenda as possibilities, while excluding others from even being considered; and perhaps influencing perceptions.

Power can be exercised from outside of official institutions and processes, through – for instance – protests and demonstrations. Outside groups can make use of official mechanisms – such as petitions presented to the UK Parliament – to achieve leverage on public office holders.

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5

Why are efforts to promote equality not always successful?

In some cases, legislation may not be up to date or deal effectively with a particular problem, such as was the case with upskirting.

Where legislation exists, the bodies charged with implementing it might not perform their roles as effectively as they should. Criticism of the Equality and Human Rights Commission and the approach it takes suggests an example of this kind of shortcoming.

People may not always agree about what is the best way of defining rights in a given area, as recent controversies around trans issues demonstrate. Attitudes change, but sometimes not everybody agrees with a particular shift in outlook, meaning it may not be acted upon, or at least not immediately.

There are limits to what public authorities can achieve. The existence of hate crime, for instance, shows that there are people within society who, for whatever reason, do not respect or understand the rights of others. Though government and others can seek to impose better behaviour, the task is clearly challenging.

The issue is also potentially one of priorities. While many senior politicians now acknowledge the importance of equality, they may be reluctant, for instance, to devote the required resources to the cause. Equality can be downgraded under pressure. In an emergency circumstance, such as Coronavirus has brought about, other issues can be deemed more pressing.

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6

Do identity politics play a positive role in UK politics? How and why?

In some senses, all political activity is about identity: a person’s views are shaped by who they are, and who they perceive themselves as being. Identity therefore is an inescapable part of politics.

Some groups suffer from discrimination and exclusion from political processes. For them to overcome these obstacles to their fuller participation in society, they need to find ways of representing their interests, and may not be able to rely on others to do it for them.

Identity politics might have a divisive effect, as is possibly suggested by the Brexit episode, and it might be difficult ultimately to satisfy the requirements of all groups, which might be to some extent mutually exclusive.

But identity politics need not be about division and could be a means by which people who share particular characteristics achieve respect and understanding from others, while also gaining insights into the position of others and their distinctive features and needs.