Twelfth-century Persian philosophical program that attempts to harmonize Sufism, Shi'ism, and rational philosophy.

A collection of treaties (1648) negotiated by the first general diplomatic congress in Western history. Involving more than one hundred delegations, it brought a century of European conflict to a close.

(r. 1558-1603) English queen who oversaw the return of the Protestant Church of England and, in 1588, the successful defense of the realm against the Spanish Armada.

In early modern and modern Europe, segregated communities of Jews in cities.

A mystical interpretation of scripture developed by rabbis that became newly popular in the 17th century in part via the influence of Sabbatai Zvi (1626-1676).

The greatest Muslim philosopher of the modern era; his most important book is The Four Journeys of the Intellect (1638).

Trend of aristocratic landowners toward evicting small farmers (by enclosing formerly open fields with stone walls or hedges) and instead using those fields for the more profitable grazing of livestock, especially sheep.

Compromise settlement (1555) between Charles V and Lutheran princes that granted Lutheranism legal recognition. With this policy, the religion of the local ruler determined the state religion of the principality, with certain guarantees offered for the rights of the religious minority.

Riot (August 23-29, 1572) between Catholics and Protestant Huguenots that began in Paris and spread across France, resulting in the deaths of thousands.

Decree by Henri IV in 1598 that guaranteed religious freedom, with certain restrictions, throughout France.

Conflict that began in 1618 between Protestants and Catholics in Germany and gradually enveloped most of Europe, ending in 1648 after massive losses of life and property.

The Calvinists in 16th-century France, led by Henri de Navarre.