Chapter 9 Outline

  1. The field of Speech Communication has traditionally been concerned with strategic interaction. One of the major goals of communication is influence.
    1. Although there are many definitions, we prefer to think of influence as any act of communication, consciously intended or not, that can affect attitudes or behaviors.
      1. Three kinds of influence have been identified.
        1. Directives are straightforward statements or requests.
        2. In persuasion communicators use evidence and reasoning to change the beliefs, attitudes, values or behaviors of others.
        3. Compliance-seeking behaviors, which lie somewhere between directives and persuasion and involve the use of strategic interaction such as doing favors, hinting, being strategically friendly, and so on.
      2. Each kind of influence is affected by culture, which determines not only how it is possible to convince people, but also what it is possible to convince people of.
        1. Persuadables are topics that can be argued within a given culture. A topic that is a persuadable in one culture may not be in another.
        2. The way people decide to go about influencing one another is also a function of their culture.
      3. During any act of communication three issues are always addressed.
        1. We address the instrumental issue when we set out to achieve a specific goal through talk.
        2. At the same time, we address the relational issue, sending messages about what kind of relationship we want to forge.
        3. Simultaneously, we address the identity issue by letting others know who we are and by either confirming or rejecting them.
        4. During influence, communicators must address all three, knowing what they want to achieve, creating a relationship with their partners, and presenting themselves positively.
    2. Two communication skills related to goal achievement are sensitivity to face and the ability to role-take.
      1. In order to be goal-competent, communicators must take the face needs of their partners into account.
        1. Positive face is the need to be approved of and appreciated by others; it is threatened through insults or criticism.
        2. Negative face is the need to be autonomous; it is threatened when recipients of a message feel constrained.
        3. Overt influence attempts can threaten both kinds of face.
        4. Sometimes, recipients of influence experience psychological defensiveness and resistance to perceived threats to their freedom.
      2. Goal competent individuals engage in symbolic role-taking.
        1. Role-taking is the ability to see things from the perspective of the other.
        2. It allows an influence agent to identify objections others may raise and to choose effective lines of action.
  2. People are motivated by a variety of needs. We can influence them by understanding what these needs are.
    1. One basic need is the need to obtain rewards and to avoid punishments. People will be influenced when this need is fulfilled.
      1. Classical conditioning, originally developed by Pavlov, holds that we can change attitudes or behavior by changing their associations.
        1. When a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the response to the unconditioned stimulus can be modified.
        2. If the conditioned stimulus is negative, the reaction will be negative; if it is rewarding, the reaction will be positive.
        3. The luncheon technique is based on classical conditioning: Because a positive stimulus (food) is paired with a message, the message is seen as positive.
        4. Paired associations are powerful modes of influence.
      2. Operant conditioning, associated with b. F. Skinner, holds that actions can be controlled by controlling their consequences.
        1. By delivering positive consequences, an influence agent can increase the frequency of a response.
        2. By delivering negative consequences, an influence agent can decrease the frequency of a response.
        3. Acts of interpersonal approval or disapproval are potent forms of influence.
      3. According to social learning theory, we can learn indirectly. We can learn from seeing others punished or rewarded.
      4. Social exchange theory is a learning model that states that, when choosing relationships, we choose the one that is most rewarding.
    2. A second basic need is the need for consistency. People will change in order to avoid inconsistency.
      1. We have a need to act in a consistent manner; as a result, we can be influenced to act in ways that are contrary to our own best interests.
      2. Cognitive dissonance theory is an important consistency theory.
        1. It holds that when we become aware that two beliefs (or an action and a belief) are dissonant, we feel the need to reduce the resulting discomfort.
        2. There are a number of ways to reduce dissonance, including denial, bolstering, differentiating, transcendence, modifying, and communicating.
        3. Dissonance theory shows that once we are committed to an action, we are unlikely to change, because doing so would cause dissonance.
        4. Commitment can be increased by asking people to voluntarily and publicly sign pledges or sign pledges. Initial, small acts of compliance may be turned to larger acts of compliance through foot-in-the-door technique.
    3. A final basic need is to establish and maintain a valued identity.
      1. Rokeach’s value theory holds that the self-concept is a powerful guide to behavior.
        1. People try to be true to private images of self.
        2. People also need to present favorable public images.
      2. Identity needs can be achieved through everyday talk as people negotiate their identities. In fact, Carl and Duck argue that interpersonal influence is going on all the time as individuals attempt to validate their sense of self and align with others.
    4. At various times individuals try to fulfill all the needs mentioned above.
      1. At various times different needs become important and we focus on meeting those needs.
      2. Different methods must be used to change different kinds of attitudes.
  3. In addition to understanding needs, the competent communicator must also project positive personal characteristics.
    1. Power is a personal basis for influence.
      1. Sources who are perceived as controlling rewards have reward power.
      2. Sources who are perceived as being able to punish have coercive power.
      3. Sources who are perceived as having special knowledge or skill have expert power.
      4. Sources who are attractive and admired have referent power.
      5. Sources who represent social institutions have legitimate power.
    2. Sources can exhibit their characteristics by using a variety of self-presentation strategies.
      1. The strategy of ingratiation involves appearing pleasant and friendly.
      2. The strategy of intimidation involves appearing dangerous.
      3. The strategy of self-promotion involves appearing competent.
      4. The strategy of exemplification involves appearing moral.
      5. The strategy of supplication involves appearing helpless.
    3. Although source characteristics are important, cognitive response theory stresses the fact that ultimately receivers persuade themselves.
      1. As receivers listen to arguments or observe self-presentation strategies, they think about what they perceive and compare these thoughts to what they already know.
      2. These self-generated thoughts are the real source of change.
  4. Successful influence agents choose specific message strategies to motivate receivers and to project valued characteristics.
    1. Compliance seeking research investigates how communicators go about using different kinds of message strategies.
      1. The most common strategies are direct request (or directives.
        1. Asking for what one wants in a direct non-confrontation way is the simplest method of influence.
        2. It is the most frequent strategy and the one marked by highest levels of satisfaction.
      2. The indirect strategy of hinting is often used, especially in situations where face concerns are important.
      3. Bargaining, where parties work out a quid pro quo, is another strategy, as is pre-giving.
      4. Deception is sometimes used to influence others, although it can undermine relationships and easily backfire.
      5. As we have already seen, ingratiation can sometimes be an effective influence ploy.
      6. Moral appeals can convince others.
      7. Manipulation, in which a sender tries to make the receiver feel jealous, guilty, or ashamed, and distributive communication, in which the sender engages in name-calling, insults, or blaming, are two more strategies.
      8. Other forms of aversive stimulation such as whining, sulking, crying, or being unpleasant are used
      9. Withdrawal, or leaving the field and refusing to communicate, is considered one of the most unpleasant of all forms of influence.
      10. Finally, threats may be used to get one’s way.
      11. The further we digress from direct, positive strategies, the more damaging are the results.
    2. To understand influence, it is important to do more than just look at strategies; in addition, we need to understand how these strategies unfold in interaction.
      1. In practice, compliance-seeking episodes are complex, incremental and interaction.
      2. Most compliance-seeking is not adversarial but involves cooperation as both parties try to accommodate to each others’ needs.
      3. Following a cooperative script, makes influence easy and rewarding to both parties.
  5. Understanding influence is a key factor in goal competence.
    1. Communicators should be aware of their own bases of power, using them to create favorable attributions.
    2. Appeals should take the needs and desires of others into account.
    3. Ultimately it is receivers who influence themselves; influence agents show them how to do this.
    4. It is important to recognize that not all influence is intentional or conscious; a lot of interpersonal influence occurs during mundane, everyday talk.
  6. An important skill related to goal competence is assertiveness.
    1. It is important to know the difference between nonassertive, aggressive, and assertive responses.
      1. Nonassertiveness is a dysfunctional behavior in which individuals do not stand up for their rights.
      2. Aggressiveness is a dysfunctional behavior in which individuals ignore the rights of others by using offensive and hostile behaviors.
      3. Assertiveness is standing up for one"s own rights, without infringing upon the rights of others.
    2. Examining your own attitudes and behaviors can improve assertiveness.
      1. Knowing your attitudes toward your own and others" rights is the first step.
      2. Getting feedback about your own behavior can help you know whether you are being appropriately assertive.
      3. If you feel you need to work on assertiveness, there are a number of things you can do.
        1. Keep a diary in which you record responses to problem situations.
        2. Rehearse correct responses by role-playing.
        3. Give yourself positive reinforcement when you are assertive.
        4. Know that sometimes you may choose not to be assertive.
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