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Chapter Summary
This chapter introduces the theories and concepts of memories. An important distinction is made between memory traces and memory schemas. Memory traces are generally viewed as permanent, faithful copies of past experiences that are laid down in memory as distinct, permanent copies of previous experiences. Memory schemas are the way we organize memory fragments provided by memory traces to construct a coherent memory of past events. This reconstruction process goes be-yond the memory traces and is thus susceptible to error.
Flashbulb memories refer to memory for very surprising and important events that appears to be especially vivid and easily recalled. However, these memories are an example of the misconception that memories, even flashbulb memories, are mainly based on memory traces (Now Print! theory). In this case, even people’s most vivid recollections of important life events are imperfect, de-spite the fact that they are often associated with a strong sense of confidence. Several recent studies have demonstrated that flashbulb memories for events such as the Challenger explosion and the events of 9/11 are susceptible to memory errors. Consequently, researchers have questioned the idea that memory traces are permanent and unchanging.
According to traditional views, memory traces take time to form fully (consolidation theory) and can be disrupted by retroactive interference. Neurologically, the hippocampus is essential for memory consolidation. Damage to the hippocampus disrupts the process of forming new memories.
Bartlett maintained that human recollections are constantly changing and are constructive in nature. He used experimental techniques, like methods of repeated reproduction and of serial re-production, to conclude that individuals include and omit information so that the resultant memory is coherent (rationalization) and so that it fits in with their flexible schemas.
Schema theories generally maintain that, as a first step, information is selected by a schema according to individual interests (selection). Afterwards, that information is converted into a more abstract form (abstraction), which is then interpreted in terms of other information already in memory (interpretation). Finally, the information is incorporated in order to coincide with the schema (integration). Some researchers even add a fifth process, reconstruction, through which general knowledge and personal experiences are combined in order to reconstruct the past. Throughout these processes, however, false information can unintentionally become integrated with the accurate, original information (misinformation effect), or memories can be made up altogether (false memories). Generally, such errors in recall are often the result of faulty source monitoring (source monitoring framework).
Retrieving information is dependent on how the information was originally encoded. This idea is captured in the principle of encoding specificity proposed by Tulving and Thompson (1973). Related to this, many studies have demonstrated the phenomenon known as context-dependent re-call in which memory was better when the learning context was reinstated at retrieval. For example, Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrated that scuba divers recalled more words that were learned underwater when they were recalling the words underwater compared to when they recalled on land. The mood-dependent recall hypothesis is another example of the principle of encoding specificity. In this case, when mood at recall is congruent with mood at learning there is a benefit to memory compared to when the mood state is incongruent at recall and learning.
Episodic memories that comprise our life story are known as autobiographical memories. Galton’s number, which is 224, refers to the number of autobiographical memories we can recall over the preceding 20 years. Childhood amnesia is the absence of autobiographical memories for the first few years of life, typically the first three years or so. Between the ages of 10 and 30 we have an increase in the number of autobiographical memories compared to other periods of our lives and this is known as the memory bump. Similar to schema theories, is the script concept. A script refers to the description of a sequence of events in a particular, well-known situation (e.g., a life script). Events that fit into these are more easily remembered as opposed to events that do not. Berntsen and Rubin (2004) showed that there are more culturally prescribed events between the ages of 18 and 30, thereby possibly explaining enhanced memory recall for those periods of one’s life.
Information can be processed on a continuum of depths of processing: either shallowly (according to physical characteristics) or deeply (according to meaning), or somewhere in between and this is known as levels of processing. Depth of processing affects the way people remember things such that the more deeply we process information, the more likely we are to be able to remember it. Elaboration and distinctiveness are two ways of deeply processing information and have been shown to improve recall. Some criticize this approach by suggesting that it is too vague and no objective definition of deep or shallow processing is provided.
Most of the research done on memory involves laboratory experiments seeking to discover the underlying mechanisms of memory (general principles memory research). Although this method has enabled many theories to emerge (forgetting curve, Jost’s law of forgetting), it has been criticized by the ecological approach for ignoring the complex context of everyday life (natural settings). Despite such critiques, both approaches are necessary to understand the act of remembering and are useful to understanding retention—in an educational context, for example.
Chapter Objectives
- To distinguish between memory traces and memory schemas.
- To outline the concept of flashbulb memories.
- To examine schema theory and review experimental evidence supporting it.
- To understand the concept of encoding specificity.
- To review research into eyewitness testimony and false memories.
- To identify the strengths and weaknesses of the “levels of processing” framework.