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Chapter Summary
This chapter examines the cognitive psychology of intelligence and creativity. Binet and Simon de-fined intelligence as a practical faculty that encompasses judgment, comprehension, and reasoning, and pioneered one of the first tests of intelligence, later known as the Stanford–Binet test.
Spearman laid the groundwork for factor analysis and, with that, proposed the “two-factor theory of intelligence.” This theory includes specific abilities and, at the top of the hierarchy, general intelligence (“mental energy,” or g), that is common to all abilities. This form of intelligence is often associated with fluid intelligence (versus crystallized intelligence). The former refers to the ability to think flexibly, while the latter refers to the body of things that one has learned. Further-more, the ability that is said to underlie general intelligence is called eduction, and it can be measured by tests such as the Raven Progressive Matrices. Moreover, it has been suggested that general intelligence is the same as working memory capacity, although the correlation between tests of working memory and performance on Raven’s matrices is far from perfect.
Garlick, on the other hand, argued that neural plasticity underlies g. Kanazawa and others have expanded on this and argue that general intelligence is the same as improvisational intelligence, in contrast to dedicated intelligence. In this case the former refers to flexible intelligence evolved to deal with unique and unpredictable problems, while the latter refers to intelligence associated with domain-specific modules evolved to solve recurring problems. According to the Flynn effect, g has been increasing over time. A number of reasons have been postulated to account to this effect, ranging from environmental influences to improvements in nutrition and health.
Moving away from general intelligence, Sternberg focused his theory of intelligence on intellectual components instead. He proposed three types of components: metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge acquisition components. His triarchic theory of intelligence maintained that there are three types of intelligence: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence (non-entrenched concepts instead of entrenched ones) and practical intelligence. The Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT) is said to measure the three areas identified by the triarchic theory. Other researchers have argued that there is no evidence demonstrating that the three types of intelligence are independent, and that g could still nonetheless underpin them.
Gardner put forward his theory of multiple intelligences, which argued against a single and collective underlying ability of intelligence. Intelligence, he maintained, must have certain criteria, such as a symbol system. Gardner, along with Winner, stated that rather than always improving with age, skills, such as drawing, follow a U-shaped development pattern, suggesting that performance (aesthetic “pleasingness”) is initially high, and then declines before rising again. Musical abilities possibly fit in with this pattern. In regards to early innate melodies (ur-songs), Gardner disagreed with Berstein and denied their existence. Bamberger proposed a phase that adolescents typically go through when abandoning music: the mid-life crisis of the musician. Another criterion that Gardner stated as being essential to intelligence is the existence of prodigies. Gardner then looked at expertise more closely. For instance, studies on memory abilities compared chess experts to novices, and it was concluded that experts can better remember piece positions than novices. Ac-cording to Ericsson and Charness, practice is the most important factor for experts (10-year rule).
On the other hand, creativity is defined as “the production of novel, socially valued products.” In studying this field, problem-finding comes to be of interest. According to Campbell, creative thinking encompasses a process of blind variation and selective retention. Simonton adopted his own version of Campbell’s theory. In it, he stated that creative solutions need chance permutations. For instance, people who have more permutations have a greater creative potential. Original thinking can be measured by the alternate uses test. Unlike most people, individuals who are creative tend to see uncommon uses for things with just as much ease as they see obvious uses for them (flat hierarchies). Another test of originality is named the remote associations test.
Chapter Objectives
- To examine the various ways in which cognitive psychologists have conceptualized intelligence and how these conceptualizations have changed over time.
- To describe the Flynn effect and look at possible explanations for it.
- To review and evaluate Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence.
- To critically consider Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
- To identify the factors related to the development of expertise.
- To explain the processes involved in creativity.