Chapter 24 Review Questions Answer Key

Indigenous Community Economic Resilience
  1. As noted in the Harvard Project, governance structures with embedded culture are a key element of economic strategy. Some community governance structures are based on traditional values, but many have found other ways to meet the needs of their communities. Recognizing diversity across and within Indigenous communities is the foundation for meaningful understanding of this complex topic. A review of Harvard’s approach by Canadian Indigenous scholar David Newhouse calls it a classic approach in Indigenous economic development. [pp. 437-8]
  1. Constitutionally protected agreements called comprehensive land claim agreements or modern treaties set out the governance structure of the four Inuit regions in northern Canada (Nunavut and Inuvialuit), northern Quebec (Nunavik), and eastern Labrador (Nunatsiavut). The national organization supporting governance is Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK) which means “Inuit are united in Canada.” ITK protects and proactively ensures rights and interests under direction of the rights holders of comprehensive land claim agreements so Inuit may prosper in Canada through unity and self-determination. Regional groups represent the needs of their members in the four areas and have a voice on the Board of Directors. A member from each of an international circumpolar group, Inuit women’s group, and Inuit youth group have permanent seats on the board, with the president duly elected by the board. The vision of ITK is “Canadian Inuit prospering through unity and self-determination” (Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami 2018). [p. 438]
  1. ITK was created when natural resource development issues were concerning, and the Inuit needed to be heard. The voices of the Inuit are heard through their political organizations that then guide ITK priorities. These priorities currently focus on effective implementation of UNDRIP and post-secondary education of Inuit youth. There have been notable achievements through the ITK, such as the National Centre for Inuit Education, the National Inuit Strategy on Research, a National Inuit Climate Change Strategy, a history project gathering stories of Inuit Nunangat, the National Inuit Youth Council, and the longest journal published in the Inuit language, Inuktitut Magazine (Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami 2018). These projects demonstrate the unique approach to supporting self-determination with an intertwining of economic goals prioritized by the Inuit. (p. 22)
  1. The umbrella organization recognized under section 35 of Canada’s constitution is the Métis National Council with a duly elected president. The Métis National Council (MNC) consists of five membership groups with unique perspectives, with the president of each sitting on the Board of Governors. These governing membership groups set the national and international agendas for MNC and include Métis Nation British Columbia, Métis Nation of Alberta, Métis Nation Saskatchewan, Manitoba Métis Federation, and Métis Nation of Ontario. A secretariat works in partnership with the Board of Governors with provincial council representatives as members. [p. 438]
  1. An example of Manitoba Métis Federation’s (MMF) position on dealing with conflict over resource development is offered by MMF President David Chartrand. He notes, “We need to look to the future of Indigenous governance and how we can advance the interests and prosperity of our people. We need to remember that reconciliation is a two-way street. If we truly believe in reconciliation, we need to work together, not apart” (Chartrand 2020). All affected levels of Indigenous and Canadian governments need to be at the table to reach a fair agreement. This approach demonstrates Métis priorities of culture, sovereignty, and leadership. The MMF strategy for ensuring good governance occurs with 130 locals holding elections so that these executives can carry issues forward to the seven regions at regular meetings or at the annual general assembly. Leadership faces an election every four years. These elections are an accountability mechanism and, while costly, allow Métis members to elect leaders by ballot. This approach is unique to Métis people, with no other Indigenous group using it. A provincial head office ensures that financial accountability and transparency is available to all members (Ferlaino 2008, 82). (p 23)
  1. The Assembly of First Nations (AFN) is the national advocacy body for more than 900,000 members and 634 First Nations communities. The issues it addresses include treaties, Indigenous rights, and land and resources. The chiefs of these communities elect the national chief every three years and by votes cast at annual Chiefs Assemblies give direction to AFN’s annual strategic plan. A national executive works on the strategic plan and is composed of the national chief, 10 regional chiefs with chairs from the Youth, Women’s, and Elders’ councils. AFN’s strategic plan outlines ways to impact national and regional discussions, advocacy plans, and relevant legal and policy analysis, working effectively with senior levels of government and building relationships with public and private sectors and the general public. [p. 439]
  1. Leadership on reserves can be elected by the following options: (a) Around 200 First Nations hold elections under the Indian Act’s electoral provisions (potential for elections every two years) or under the First Nations Election Act (meet the requirements whereby the elections follow the community’s directions, elections every four years, and no interference by the federal government). (b) Communities may engage in a self-government agreement with the federal government, which removes their elections, laws, and policies from the Indian Act and into their own control. (c) Band custom election practices are recognized by the federal government based on community submissions. The federal government in these cases does not address community election procedures or appeals. [p. 439]
  1. Control of land and effective governance structures are critical to successful economic development. These agreements or modern treaties offer stability, which is also important for attracting partners to business opportunities. The Métis have no land base except where agreements were signed in Alberta with the Métis Settlement General Council, eight settlements, and the federal Minister of Energy. This co-management agreement focused on resource development. The province of Alberta maintains ownership of mines and minerals, and the settlements may negotiate royalties with an oil and gas company that has secured a lease, or it can take an equity up to 25 per cent with a successful bidder on a mineral lease. Amendments occurred in 2013 that included requiring a bidder to outline how the proposal benefits the Métis Settlement. Positive relationships developed over time under these agreements, with provincial, federal, and Métis governments contributing to a $113.5-million landmark agreement in 2013, with an 85 per cent commitment from Alberta and the balance from the Métis Settlements General Council. Sustainability, accountability, and governance structures to benefit the Métis settlements are some of the initiatives captured in this agreement. Education, employment prospects, and economic opportunities are targeted for improvement, including community infrastructure. Health, well-being, and economic stability are expected from these projects. [pp. 438, 440]
  1. Self-sufficiency and self-determination go hand-in-hand, and both rely on the work of strong leadership and vision from within the community. There are a few breakout Indigenous communities thriving economically and benefitting local regions across Canada, demonstrating self-sufficiency and self-determination. It is often a question of what a community is ready for, and these communities can often become more economically successful than before. For some Indigenous communities, traditional values demonstrate a relationship with the land that is quite different from the roots of Western economic thought. The land is inseparable from human life because it is the giver of life with “water, fish, animals and plants” (Loxley 2007, 15). [p. 440]
  1. Today’s generation of Indigenous youth often encourage conservation-based resource management practices. There is some tension with those Indigenous communities engaging in extractive resource development, but nonetheless it flows from their right to exercise self-determination. Many communities respect sharing with families and elders and rely on a collective land-use approach, since the Indian Act (1985) still sets the rules for management of Indigenous lands. With the creation of the Framework Agreement on First Nation Land Management in 1996, 96 communities of more than 630 First Nation communities are now in the process of opting out of Indian Act land management restrictions and taking responsibility for their own lands, again in keeping with self-determination. [p. 440]
  1. This organization is owned by the LaRonge Indian Band in northern Saskatchewan to support economic and development activities in the community. The interesting approaches taken by the community include bringing in managerial expertise from outside of the community in contrast to some other communities’ internally focused approach and diversifying their investments through partnerships as supported by its members. Their vision, mission, and key commitments offer insight into the way the organization approaches its investments. The organization’s vision states, “We are leaders in building profitable business enterprises for training and employment” (Kitsaki Management Limited Partnership 2019) and its mission focuses on economic benefits to its community members, all Indigenous people, and stakeholders. [p. 440]
  1. The economic mission and vision for the com­munity emphasizes self-determination through eco­nomic development while protecting their culture. Community wellness is based on health, hard work, and financial sustainability that supports children and elders. Their businesses include 38 per cent commercial leasing of more than 32,000 acres in southern Okanagan, BC; 20 per cent tourism with an RV park, an 18-hole champion golf course, and a cul­tural centre; and 14 per cent in construction services focused on concrete, forestry, and a business park. The Nk’Mip Vineyards produces premium grapes for Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Gris, Cabernet Franc, Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay wines and is the only Indigenous business in this industry. It is in partnership with Constellation Brands, Inc. Nk’Mip Resort is a $100-million com­plex, co-owned and managed by Calgary-based Bellstar Hotels and Resorts. [p. 442]
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