Chapter 8 Revision Guide

Origins of critical theory in IR lie in thought associated with the ‘Frankfurt School’.
Frankfurt School thinking was notably inspired by German Enlightenment philosophers (such as Immanuel Kant); German Idealism (such as G. W.F. Hegel); as well as Karl Marx and Western Marxists, but it sought to revise and reformulate many key understandings of these strands of thought.
Key to Frankfurt school thinking are questions over the formation of political consciousness. This came through in different ways in the work of early critical theorists of the Frankfurt School
Walter Benjamin: was a crucial first generation Frankfurt School theorist who engaged questions of the aesthetic and artistic practices in the era of mechanical reproduction to think through questions of authenticity.
Max Horkheimer: was a significant figure in having first formulated a key theoretical move on the differences between ‘traditional’ and ‘critical’ theory. The distinction developed by Horkheimer had lasting influence on later IR scholars, most notably perhaps Robert Cox.
Theodor W. Adorno: initiated important reflections on the role of the ‘culture industry’ in its construction of consciousness in modern society.
Jürgen Habermas: formulated a key theory of dialogical ethics, which has come to play a significant role in the development of critical theory.
Critical IR theory is concerned with developing the concept of critical reflexivity and arose in two phases.
The first phase was concerned with questions of epistemology, and placed emphasis on critique of science and objectivity in IR theories as well as critiques of state-centrism.
Important scholars of this first phase (including Cox, Ashley, Lapid and Hoffman) are often considered members of the postmodern strand of critical IR theory, who emphasized the need for plural perspectives and post positivism in the study of international politics.
Critical theory grew out of disenchantment with (neo)realism as IR’s paradigmatic dominant. Critical theorists in the first phase aimed to move beyond an understanding of the purpose of theory as describing reality. Instead, the purpose of theory was understood to be interpretive of reality, where reality is seen as an open-ended totality of changing and unfolding social relations and identities in international relations.In the later phase, the pragmatic and normatively based critical IR theories entailed focus on questions of dialogue and dialogical ethics, questions of political community and recognition, and an interest in political economy
Habermas’s thought has been very important here. It has provided the cornerstone for development of theoretical interpretations of dialogue and ethics in international politics.
Many critics continue, however, to question how precisely to understand communicative action and dialogue in international politics today. Difficulties in cultural and moral conflicts and consequential non- or misrecognition of participants, as well as the lack of a fundamentally democratic forum for dialogue among global actors is among the most common challenges.
Thomas Risse’s intervention on communicative action, through his notion of the logic of communication, was an important catalyst in the development of Habermas’s ideas in IR.
In moving towards development of a systematic ‘critical theory of international relations’, Andrew Linklater’s thought on political community has been a very important theoretical intervention.
Three key elements are crucial for Linklater’s framework:
First, the normative domain: Emphasis on dialogue and dialogical ethics, as well as move towards world community.

Second, the sociological domain: encompassed the social determinants of international structures of the international state system.
Third, the praxeological domain: the actions and tasks of implementing and enforcing the principles of justice, freedom, and equality.

Both strands of critical theorizing are committed to highlighting underrepresented actors and voices in IR, and are therefore concerned with exposing various sources of oppression. Ontological, epistemological and methodological plurality in theorizing is therefore inherent to such approaches.
Case study: Spring 2011 entailed key sudden movements against authoritarian states in the Middle East. These movements exposed not only the problems underpinning authoritarian rule, but also raised questions about Western states’ problematic positions on support for authoritarian rulers in the region.

Case study continued: Critical IR theory can focus attention on a variety of underlying social elements shaping Arab Spring:
- the political identity and consciousness of the Arab peoples
- the failure of neoliberal policies
- the political will to instantiate the rule of law
- the role of social media.
In short, critical theory furnishes us with a reflexive critique of the tension between the Arab Spring’s static and transformational political and social forces.

Critical Reflexivity: refers to an abstract and dynamic process of self-transformation and self-awareness.
Reflexivity is based on the assumption of a ‘productive tension’ between abstract and practical dimensions of IR and IR theory.
Employed in critical IR theory, reflexivity seeks to highlight the interplay between facts and values is highlighted to foster self-awareness of the IR discipline by exposing:
a) how knowledge and social reality are co-produced through social interaction
b) how scholars interact with and are shaped by the knowledge they produce of topics or issues in world politics
Conclusion: Important in IR: Its commitment to critical reflexivity, which is sceptical of fact/value separation in theorizing and thus requires constant commitment to self-awareness by theorists, challenges the narrowness of positivist perspectives in IR.
Habermas’ discursive approach remains crucial in opening such horizons and motivating critical theoretical research in international politics.
The role of globalisation is an important as context for critical theory. It initiates questions of global civil society and empowerment that the critical theorists in IR can delve into and explore.
From here, critical theorists in IR emphasize the open-ended and imaginative dimensions of emancipatory project in world politics.