Sex Determination and Gametogenesis

Abe, M., Y. Kobayashi, S. Yamamoto, Y. Daimon, A. Yamaguchi, Y. Ikeda, H. Ichinoki, M. Notaguchi, K. Goto and T. Araki. 2005. FD, a bZIP protein mediating signals from the floral pathway integrator FT at the shoot apex. Science 309: 1052–1056.

Ainsworth, C. 2015. Sex defined. Nature 518: 288–291.

Anderson, E. L., A. E. Baltus, H. L. Ropers-Gajadien, T. J. Hassold, D. G. de Rooij, A. M. van Pelt and D. C. Page. 2008. Stra8 and its inducer, retinoic acid, regulate meiotic initiation in both spermatogenesis and oogenesis in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105: 14976–14980.

PubMed Link

Anderson, R., T. K. Copeland, H. Schöler, J. Heasman and C. Wylie. 2000. The onset of germ cell migration in the mouse embryo. Mech. Dev. 91: 61–68.

PubMed Link

Andersson, S., D. M. Berman, E. P. Jenkins and D. W. Russell. 1991. Deletion of steroid 5a-reductase 2 gene in male pseudohermaphroditism. Nature 354: 159–161.

PubMed Link

Arango, N. A., R. Lovell-Badge and R. R. Behringer. 1999. Targeted mutagenesis of the endogenous mouse Mis gene promoter: In vivo definition of genetic pathways of vertebrate sexual development. Cell 99: 409–419.

PubMed Link

Argunhan, B., W. K. Leung, N. Afshar, Y. Terentyev, V. V. Subramanian, Y. Marayama, A. Hochwagen, H. Iwasaki, T. Tsubouchi and H. Tsubouchi. 2017. Fundamental cell cycle kinases collaborate to ensure timely destruction of the synaptonemal complex during meiosis. EMBO J. 36: 2488–2509.

Asaoka-Taguchi, M., M. Yamada, A. Nakamura, K. Hanyu and S. Kobayashi. 1999. Maternal Pumilio acts together with Nanos in germline development in Drosophila embryos. Nat. Cell Biol. 1: 431–437.

PubMed Link

Austin, J., A. Tamar-Mattis, T. Mazur, M. J. Henwood and W. C. Rossi. 2011. Disorders of sex development: When and how to tell the patient. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Rev. 83: 213–217.

PubMed Link

Avila, F. W. and J. W. Erickson. 2007. Drosophila JAK/STAT pathway reveals distinct initiation and reinforcement steps in early transcription of SxlCurr. Biol. 17: 643–648.

PubMed Link

Bagheri-Fam, S. and 11 others. 2015. FGFR2 mutation in 46,XY sex reversal with craniosynostosis. Hum. Mol. Genet. 24: 6699–6710.

Bagheri-Fam, S., A. D. Bird, L. Zhao, J. M. Ryan, M. Yong, D. Wilhelm, P. Koopman, V. P. Eswarakumar and V. R. Harley. 2017. Testis determination requires a specific FGFR2 isoform to repress FOXL2. Endocrinology 158: 3832–3843.

Baker, B. S. 1989. Sex in flies: The splice of life. Nature 340: 521–524.

PubMed Link

Baker, B. S., R. N. Nagoshi and K. C. Burtis. 1987. Molecular genetic aspects of sex determination in DrosophilaBioEssays 6: 66–70.

PubMed Link

Baker, B. S., B. J. Taylor and J. C. Hall. 2001. Are complex behaviors specified by directed regulatory genes? Reasoning from DrosophilaCell 105: 13–24.

PubMed Link

Baker, T. G. 1970. Primordial germ cells. In C. R. Austin and R. V. Short (eds.), Reproduction in Mammals, Vol. 1: Germ Cells and Fertilization. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1–13.

Baltus, A. E., D. B. Menke, Y. C. Hu, M. L. Goodheart, A. E. Carpenter, D. G. de Rooij and D. C. Page. 2006. In germ cells of mouse embryonic ovaries, the decision to enter meiosis precedes premeiotic DNA replication. Nat. Genet. 38: 1430–1434.

PubMed Link

Barrionuevo, F., S. Bagheri-Fam, J. Klattig, R. Kist, M. M. Taketo, C. Englert and G. Scherer. 2006. Homozygous inactivation of Sox9 causes complete XY sex reversal in mice. Biol. Reprod. 74: 195–201.

PubMed Link

Barrios, F., D. Filipponi, M. Pellegrini, M. P. Paronetto, S. Di Siena, R. Geremia, P. Rossi, M. De Felici, E. A. Jannini and S. Dolci. 2010. Opposing effects of retinoic acid and Fgf9 onNanos2 expression and meiotic entry of mouse germ cells. J. Cell Sci. 123: 871–880.

PubMed Link

Bell, L. R., J. I. Horabin, P. Schedl and T. W. Cline. 1991. Positive autoregulation of sex-lethal by alternative splicing maintains the female determined state in DrosophilaCell 65: 229–239.

PubMed Link

Ben Maamar, M., E. Nilsson, I. Sadler-Riggleman, D. Beck, J. McCarrey, and M. K. Skinner. 2019. Developmental origins of transgenerational sperm DNA methylation epimutations following ancestral DDT exposure. Dev. Biol. 445: 280–293.

Berkovitz, G. D., P. Y. Fechner, S. M. Marcantonio, G. Bland, G. Stetten, P. N. Goodfellow, K. D. Smith and C. J. Migeon. 1992. The role of the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY) in the etiology of 46,XX true hermaphrodites. Hum. Genet. 88: 411–416.

PubMed Link

Bernard, P., H. Sim, K. Knower, E. Vilain and V. Harley. 2008. Human SRY inhibits b-catenin-mediated transcription. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 40: 2889–2900.

PubMed Link

Bernard, P., J. Ryan, H. Sim, D. P. Czech, A. H. Sinclair, P. Koopman and V. R. Harley. 2012. Wnt signaling in ovarian development inhibits Sf1 activation of Sox9 via the Tesco enhancer. Endocrinology 153: 901–912.

PubMed Link

Berruti, G. and C. Paiardi. 2011. Acrosome biogenesis: Revisiting old questions to yield new insights. Spermatogenesis 1: 95–98.

PubMed Link

Beukeboom, L. W. 1995. Sex determination in Hymenoptera: A need for genetic and molecular studies. BioEssays 17: 813–817.

PubMed Link

Bieser, K. L. and T. Wibbels. 2014. Chronology, magnitude, and duration of expression of putative sex-determining/differentiation genes in a turtle with temperature-dependent sex determination. Sexual Dev. 8: 364–375.

PubMed Link

Birk, O. S. and 11 others. 2000. The LIM homeobox gene LHX9 is essential for mouse gonad formation. Nature 403: 909–913.

PubMed Link

Blackless, M., A. Charuvastra, A. Derryck, A. Fausto-Sterling, K. Lauzanne and E. Lee. 2000. How sexually dimorphic are we? Review and synthesis. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 12: 151–166.

PubMed Link

Boggs, R. T., P. Gregor, S. Idriss, J. M. Belote and M. McKeown. 1987. Regulation of sexual differentiation in D. melanogaster via alternative splicing of RNA from the transformer gene. Cell 50: 739–747.

PubMed Link

Boswell, R. E. and A. P.  Mahowald. 1985. Tudor, a gene required for assembly of the germ plasm in Drosophila melanogaster. Cell 43: 97–104.

PubMed Link

Bowles, J. and 11 others. 2006. Retinoid signaling determines germ cell fate in mice. Science 312: 596–600.

PubMed Link

Bowles, J., C. W. Feng, C. Spiller, T. L. Davidson, A. Jackson and P. Koopman. 2010. Fgf9 suppresses meiosis and promotes male germ cell fate in mice. Dev. Cell. 19: 440–449.

PubMed Link

Bradford, S. T. and 10 others. 2009a. The cerebellin 4 precursor gene is a direct target of SRY and SOX9 in mice. Biol. Reprod. 80: 1178–1188.

PubMed Link

Bradford, S. T., D. Wilhelm, R. Bandiera, V. Vidal, A. Schedl and P. Koopman. 2009b. A cell-autonomous role for WT1 in regulating Sry in vivo. Hum. Mol. Genet. 18: 3429–3438.

PubMed Link

Brar, G. A., A. Hochwagen, L. S. Ee and A. Amon. 2009. The multiple roles of cohesin in meiotic chromosome morphogenesis and pairing. Mol. Biol. Cell 20: 1030–1047.

PubMed Link

Braun, R. E., R. R. Behringer, J. J. Peschon, R. L. Brinster and R. D. Palmiter. 1989. Genetically haploid spermatids are phenotypically diploid. Nature 337: 373–376.

PubMed Link

Brennan, J. and B. Capel. 2004. One tissue, two fates: Molecular genetics that underlie testis versus ovary development. Nat. Rev. Genet. 5: 509–521.

PubMed Link

Brennan, J., J. Karl and B. Capel. 2002. Divergent vascular mechanisms downstream of Sry establish the arterial system in the XY gonad. Dev. Biol. 244: 418–428.

PubMed Link

Bull, J. J. 1980. Sex determination in reptiles. Q. Rev. Biol. 55: 3–21.

Bullejos, M. and P. Koopman. 2005. Delayed Sry and Sox9 expression in developing mouse gonads underlie B6-YDOM sex reversal. Dev. Biol. 278: 473–481.

PubMed Link

Burke, B. 2018. LINC complexes as regulators of meiosis. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 52: 22–29.

Buss, L. 1987. The Evolution of Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

Cakmak, H., F. Franciosi, A. M. Zamah, M. I. Cedars and M. Conti. 2016. Dynamic secretion during meiotic reentry integrates the function of the oocyte and cumulus cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 113: 2424–2429.

PubMed Link

Capel, B., K. H. Albrecht, L. L. Washburn and E. M. Eicher. 1999. Migration of mesonephric cells into the mammalian gonad depends on Sry. Mech. Dev. 84: 127–131.

PubMed Link

Carlomagno, G., M. P. van Bragt, C. M. Korver, S. Repping, D. G. de Rooij and A. M. van Pelt. 2010. BMP4-induced differentiation of a rat spermatogonial stem cell line causes changes in its cell adhesion properties. Biol. Reprod.  83: 742–749.

PubMed Link

Carré, G. A., P. Siggers, M. Xipolita, P. Brindle, B. Lutz, S. Wells, and A. Greenfield. 2018. Loss of p300 and CBP disrupts histone acetylation at the mouse Sry promoter and causes XY gonadal sex reversal. Hum. Mol. Genet. 27: 190–198.

Cate, R. L. and 18 others. 1986. Isolation of the bovine and human genes for Müllerian inhibiting substance and expression of the gene in animal cells. Cell 45: 685–698.

PubMed Link

Champroux, A., J. Cocquet, J. Henry-Berger, J. R. Drevet, and A. Kocer. 2018. A decade of exploring the mammalian sperm epigenome: paternal epigenetic and transgenerational inheritance. Front. Cell Dev. Biol. 6: 50.

Chassot, A. A., E. P. Gregoire, R. Lavery, M. M. Taketo, D. G. de Rooij, I. R. Adams and M. C. Chaboissier. 2011. RSPO1/b-catenin signaling pathway regulates oogonia differentiation and entry into meiosis in the mouse fetal ovary. PLOS ONE 6: e25641.

PubMed Link

Chen, J. and 11 others. 2013. Somatic cells regulate maternal mRNA translation and developmental competence of mouse oocytes. Nat. Cell Biol. 15: 1415–1423.

PubMed Link

Chen, L. Y., W. D. Willis and E. M. Eddy. 2016a. Targeting the Gdnf gene in peritubular myoid cells disrupts undifferentiated spermatogonial cell development. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 113: 1829–1834.

PubMed Link

Chen, Q. and 13 others. 2016b. Sperm tsRNAs contribute to intergenerational inheritance of an acquired metabolic disorder. Science 351: 397–400.

PubMed Link

Chiang, T., F. E. Duncan, K. Schindler, R. M. Schultz and M. A. Lampson. 2010. Evidence that weakened centromere cohesion is a leading cause of age-related aneuploidy in oocytes. Curr. Biol. 20: 1522–1528.

PubMed Link

Coen, E. S. and E. M. Meyerowitz. 1991. The war of the whorls: Genetic interactions controlling flower development. Nature 353: 31–37.

Colvin, J., R. P. Green, J. Schmal, B. Capel and D. M. Ornitz. 2001. Male-to-female sex reversal in mice lacking fibroblast growth factor 9. Cell 104: 875–889.

PubMed Link

Combes, A. N., D. Wilhelm, T. Davidson, E. Dejana, V. Harley, A. Sinclair and P. Koopman. 2009. Endothelial cell migration directs testis cord formation. Dev. Biol. 326: 112–120.

PubMed Link

Comings, D. E. 1968. The rationale for an ordered arrangement of chromatin in the interphase nucleus. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 20: 440–460.

PubMed Link

Cool, J. and B. Capel. 2009. Mixed signals: Development of the testis. Semin. Reprod. Med. 27: 5–13.

PubMed Link

Couse, J. F. and K. S. Korach. 2001. Contrasting phenotypes in reproductive tissues of female estrogen receptor null mice. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 948: 1–8.

PubMed Link

Couse, J. F., S. C. Hewitt, D. O. Bunch, M. Sar, V. R. Walker, B. J. Davis and K. S. Korach. 1999. Postnatal sex reversal of the ovaries in mice lacking estrogen receptors alpha and beta. Science 286: 2328–2331.

PubMed Link

Crain, D. A. and L. J. Guillette, Jr. 1998. Reptiles as models of contaminant-induced endocrine disruption. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 53: 77–86.

PubMed Link

Crews, D. 2003. Sex determination: Where environment and genetics meet. Evol. Dev. 5: 50–55.

PubMed Link

Crews, D. and J. J. Bull. 2009. Mode and tempo in environmental sex determination in vertebrates. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 20: 251–255. 

PubMed Link

Culty, M. 2009. Gonocytes, the forgotten cells of the germ cell lineage. Birth Def. Res. C Embryol. Today 87: 1–26.

PubMed Link.

Cunha, G. R. and L. Baskin. 2018. Development of human male and female urogenital tracts. Differentiation 103: S0301–S4681.

Cunha, G. R. and 17 others. 2014. Development of the external genitalia: Perspectives from the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Differentiation 87: 4–22.

PubMed Link

de Rooij, D. G. 2017. The nature and dynamics of spermatogonial stem cells. Development 144: 3022–3030.

de Rooij, D. G. and L. D. Russell. 2000. All you wanted to know about spermatogonia but were afraid to ask. J. Androl. 21: 776–798.

PubMed Link

de Santa Barbara, P., B. Moniot, F. Poulat and P. Berta. 2000. Expression and subcellular localization of SF-1, SOX9, WT1, and AMH proteins during early human testicular development. Dev. Dyn. 217: 293–298.

Donoughe, S., T. Nakamura, B. Ewen-Campen, D. A. Green II, L. Henderson and C. G. Extavour. 2014. BMP signaling is required for the generation of primordial germ cells in an insect. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 111: 4133–4138.

Dreger, A. D. 2000. Hermaphrodites and the Medical Invention of Sex. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Dreger, A. D., C. Chase, A. Sousa, P. A. Gruppuso and J. Frader. 2005. Changing the nomenclature/taxonomy for intersex: A scientific and clinical rationale. JPEM 18: 729–733.

Dudley, B. M., C. Runyan, Y. Takeuchi, K. Schaible and K. Molyneaux. 2007. BMP signaling regulates PGC numbers and motility in organ culture. Mech. Dev. 124: 68–77.

Dudley, B., C. Palumbo, J. Nalepka and K. Molyneaux. 2010. BMP signaling controls formation of a primordial germ cell niche within the early genital ridges. Dev. Biol. 343: 84–93.

Dunce, J. M., O. M. Dunne, M. Ratcliff, C. Millán, S. Madgwick, I. Usón and O. R. Davies. 2018. Structural basis of meiotic chromosome synapsis through SYCP1 self-assembly. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 25: 557–569.

Dym, M. 1977. The male reproductive system. In L. Weiss and R. O. Greep (eds.), Histology, 4th Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 979–1038.

Dym, M. 1994. Spermatogonial cells of the testis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 11287–11289.

PubMed Link

Eicher, E. M. and L. L. Washburn. 1983. Inherited sex reversal in mice: Identification of a new sex-determining gene. J. Exp. Zool. 228: 297–304.

PubMed Link

Eicher, E. M., L. L. Washburn, N. J. Schork, B. K. Lee, E. P. Shown, X. Xu, R. D. Dredge, M. J. Pringle and D. C. Page. 1996. Sex-determining genes on mouse autosomes identified by linkage analysis of C57BL/6J-Y-POS sex reversal. Nat. Genet.14: 206–209.

PubMed Link

Erickson, J. W. and J. J. Quintero. 2007. Indirect effects of ploidy suggest X chromosome dose, not the X:A ratio, signals sex in DrosophilaPLOS Biol. 5: e332.

PubMed Link

Escoffier, J. and 13 others. 2015. Subcellular localization of phospholipase Cζ in human sperm and its absence in DPY19L2-deficient sperm are consistent with its role in oocyte activation. Mol. Hum. Reprod. 21: 157–168.

Ewen-Campen, B., E. E. Schwager and C. G. Extavour. 2010. The molecular machinery of germ line specification. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 77: 3–18.

PubMed Link

Ewen-Campen, B., S. Donoughe, D. N. Clarke, and C. G. Extavour. 2013. Germ cell specification requires zygotic mechanisms rather than germ plasm in a basally branching insect. Curr. Biol. 23: 835–842.

Fausto-Sterling, A. 1993. The five sexes: Why male and female are not enough. The Sciences 33: 20–24.

Fausto-Sterling, A. 2000. Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. Basic Books, New York.

Fayomi, A. P. and K. E. Orwig. 2018. Spermatogonial stem cells and spermatogenesis in mice, monkeys and men. Stem Cell Res. 29: 207–214.

Feng, R. and 33 others. 2016. Mutations in TUBB8 and human oocyte meiotic arrest. New Engl. J. Med. 374: 223–232.

PubMed Link

Fisher, C. R., K. H. Graves, A. F. Parlow and E. R. Simpson. 1998. Characterization of mice deficient in aromatase (ArKO) because of a targeted disruption of the cyp19 gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 6965–6970.

PubMed Link

Ford, C. E., K. W. Jones and P. E. Polani. 1959. A sex chromosomal anomaly in a case of gonadal dysgenesis (Turner’s syndrome). Lancet 1: 771–713.

PubMed Link

Freiman, R. N., S. R. Albright, S. Zheng, W. C. Sha, R. E. Hammer and R. Tjian. 2002. Requirement of tissue-specific TBP-associated factor TAF11105 in ovarian development. Science 293: 2084–2087.

PubMed Link

Fujiwara, T., N. R. Dunn, and B. L. Hogan. 2001. Bone morphogenetic protein 4 in the extraembryonic mesoderm is required for allantois development and the localization and survival of primordial germ cells in the mouse. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 13739–13744.

Ge, C., J. Ye, H. Zhang, Y. Zhang, W. Sun, Y. Sang, B. Capel and G. Qian. 2017. Dmrt1 induces the male pathway in a turtle species with temperature-dependent sex determination. Development 144: 2222–2233.

Ge, C., J. Ye, C. Weber, W. Sun, H. Zhang, Y. Zhou, C. Cai, G. Qian and B. Capel. 2018. The histone demethylase KDM6B regulates temperature-dependent sex determination in a turtle species. Science 360: 645–648.

Geddes, P. and J. A. Thomson. 1890. The Evolution of Sex. Walter Scott, London.

Geissler, W. M., D. L. Davis, L. Wu, K. D. Bradshaw, S. Patel, B. B. Mendonca, K. O. Elliston, J. D. Wilson, D. W. Russell and S. Andersson. 1994. Male pseudohermaphroditism caused by mutations of testicular 17b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 3. Nat. Genet. 7: 34–39.

PubMed Link

Gempe, T., M. Hasselmann, M. Schiøtt, G. Hause, M. Otte and M. Beye. 2009. Sex determination in honeybees: Two separate mechanisms induce and maintain the female pathway. PLOS Biol. 7: e1000222.

PubMed Link

Gilbert, S. F. 1978. The embryological origins of the gene theory. J. Hist. Biol. 11: 307–351.

PubMed Link

Gilbert, S. G., A. Tyler and E. Zackin. 2005. Bioethics and the New Embryology: Springboards for Debate. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.

Gonen, N., C. R. Futtner, S. Wood, S. A. Garcia-Moreno, I. M. Salamone, S. C. Samson, R. Sekido, F. Poulat, D. M. Maatouk and R. Lovell-Badge. 2018. Sex reversal following deletion of a single distal enhancer of Sox9. Science 360: 1469–1473.

González, A. N., H. Lu and J. W. Erickson. 2008. A shared enhancer controls a temporal switch between promoters during Drosophila primary sex determination. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105: 18436–18441.

PubMed Link

Govin, J., C. Caron, C. Lestrat, S. Rousseaux and S. Khochbin. 2004. The role of histones in chromatin remodeling during mammalian spermiogenesis. Eur. J. Biochem. 271: 3459–3469.

PubMed Link

Griswold, M. D., C. A. Hogarth, J. Bowles and P. Koopman. 2012. Initiating meiosis: The case for retinoic acid. Biol. Reprod. 86: 35.

PubMed Link

Gu, Y., C. Runyan, A. Shoemaker, A. Surani and C. Wylie. 2009. Steel factor controls primordial germ cell survival and motility from the time of their specification in the allantois, and provides a continuous niche throughout their migration. Development 136: 1295–1303.

PubMed Link

Gubbay, J., J. Collignon, P. Koopman, B. Capel, A. Economou, A. Münsterberg, N. Vivian, P. Goodfellow and R. Lovell-Badge. 1990. A gene mapping to the sex-determining region of the mouse Y chromosome is a member of a novel family of embryonically expressed genes. Nature 346: 245–250.

PubMed Link

Hacker, A., B. Capel, P. Goodfellow and R. Lovell-Badge. 1995. Expression of Sry, the mouse sex determining gene. Development 121: 1603–1614.

PubMed Link

Haering, C. H., A. M. Farcas, P. Arumugam, J. Metson and K. Nasmyth. 2008. The cohesin ring concatenates sister DNA molecules. Nature 454: 297–301.

PubMed Link

Hammoud, S. S., D. A. Nix, H. Zhang, J. Purwar, D. T. Carrell and B. R. Cairns. 2009. Distinctive chromatin in human sperm packages genes for embryo development. Nature 460: 473–478.

PubMed Link

Handa, N., O. Nureki, K. Kurimoto, I. Kim, H. Sakamoto, Y. Shimura, Y. Muto and S. Yokoyama. 1999. Structural basis for recognition of the tra mRNA precursor by the Sex-lethal protein. Nature 398: 579–585.

PubMed Link

Handel, M. A. and J. J. Eppig. 1998. Sexual dimorphism in the regulation of mammalian meiosis. Curr. Topics Dev. Biol. 37: 333–358.

PubMed Link

Hara, K., T. Nakagawa, H. Enomoto, M. Suzuki, M. Yamamoto, B. D. Simons and S. Yoshida. 2014. Mouse spermatogenic stem cells continually interconvert between equipotent singly isolated and syncytial states. Cell Stem Cell 4: 658–672.

PubMed Link

Harchegani, A. B., H. Shafaghatian, E. Tahmasbpour, and A. Shahriary. 2018. Regulatory functions of microRNAs in male reproductive health: a new approach to understanding male infertility. Reprod. Sci.: 1933719118765972. doi: 10.1177/1933719118765972.

Harris, A. and 21 others. 2018. ZNRF3 functions in mammalian sex determination by inhibiting canonical WNT signaling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 115: 5474–5479.

Hassold, T. and D. Chiu. 1985. Maternal age-specific rates of numerical chromosome abnormalities with special reference to trisomy. Hum. Genet. 70: 11–17.

PubMed Link

Hassold, T., D. Chiu and J. A. Yamane. 1984. Parental origin of autosomal trisomies. Ann. Hum. Genet. 48: 129–144.

PubMed Link

Hayashi, Y., M. Hayashi, and S. Kobayashi. 2004. Nanos suppresses somatic cell fate in Drosophila germ line. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101: 10338–10342.

Heath, J. K. 1978. Mammalian primordial germ cells. Dev. Mammals 3: 272–298.

Heikkilä, M., R. Prunskaite, F. Naillat, P. Itäranta, J. Vuoristo, J. Leppäluoto, H. Peltoketo and S. Vainio. 2005. The partial female-to-male sex reversal in Wnt-4-deficient females involves induced expression of testosterone biosynthetic genes and testosterone production, and depends on estrogen action. Endocrinology 146: 4016–4023.

PubMed Link

Hess, R. A., D. Bunick, K.-H. Lee, J. Bahr, J. A. Taylor, K. S. Korach and D. B. Lubahn. 1997. A role for oestrogens in the male reproductive system. Nature 390: 509–512.

PubMed Link

Hiramatsu, R., S. Matoba, M. Kanai-Azuma, N. Tsunekawa, Y. Katoh-Fukui, M. Korohmaru, K. Morohashi, D. Wilhelm, P. Koopman and Y. Kanai. 2009. A critical time window of Sry action in gonadal sex determination in mice. Development 136: 129–138.

PubMed Link

Hiraoka, K., A. Yamaguchi, M. Abe and T. Araki. 2013. The florigen genes FT and TSF modulate lateral shoot outgrowth in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Cell Physiol. 54: 352–368.

Holderegger, C. and D. Keefer. 1986. The ontogeny of the mouse estrogen receptor: The pelvic region. Am. J. Anat. 177: 285–297.

PubMed Link

Holubcová, Z., M. Blayney, K. Elder and M. Schuh. 2015. Error-prone chromosome-mediated spindle assembly favors chromosome segregation defects in human oocytes. Science 348: 1143–1147.

PubMed Link

Huang, B., S. Wang, Y. Ning, A. N. Lamb and J. Bartley. 1999. Autosomal XX sex reversal caused by duplication of SOX9Am. J. Med. Genet. 87: 349–353.

PubMed Link

Huang, N. C., W. N. Jane, J. Chen and T. S. Yu. 2012. Arabidopsis thaliana CENTRORADIALIS homologue (ATC) acts systemically to inhibit floral initiation in Arabidopsis. Plant J. 72: 175–184.

Hughes, I. A., C. Houk, S. F. Ahmed and P. A. Lee. 2006. Consensus statement on management of intersex disorders. J. Pediatr. Urol. 2: 148–162

PubMed Link

Hull, C. L. 2003. Letter to the editor: How sexually dimorphic are we? Am. J. Hum. Biol. 15: 112–114.

Hunt, P. and T. Hassold. 2010. Female meiosis: Coming unglued with age. Curr. Biol. 20: R699–R702.

PubMed Link

Ikami, K., M. Tokue, R. Sugimoto, C. Noda, S. Kobayashi, K. Hara and S. Yoshida. 2015. Hierarchical differentiation competence in response to retinoic acid ensures stem cell maintenance during mouse spermatogenesis. Development 142: 1582–1592.

PubMed Link

Imperato-McGinley, J., L. Guerrero, T. Gautier and R. E. Peterson. 1974. Steroid 5a-reductase deficiency in man: An inherited form of male pseudohermaphroditism. Science 186: 1213–1215.

PubMed Link

Isaacson, D. and 10 others. 2018. Three-dimensional imaging of the developing human fetal urogenital-genital tract: Indifferent stage to male and female differentiation. Differentiation 103: S0301–S4681.

ISNA. 2019. Intersex conditions. http://www.isna.org/faq/conditions.

Jääskeläinen, J. 2012. Molecular biology of androgen insensitivity. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 352: 4–12.

Jacobs, P. A. and J. A. Strong. 1959. A case of human intersexuality having a possible XXY sex-determining mechanism. Nature 183: 302–303.

PubMed Link

Jameson, S. A., Y-T. Lin and B. Capel. 2012. Testis development requires the repression of Wnt4 by Fgf signaling. Dev. Bio. 370: 24–32.

PubMed Link

Jensen, M. P., C. D. Allen, T. Eguchi, I. P. Bell, E. L. LaCasella, W. A. Hilton, C. A. M. Hof and P. H. Dutton. 2018. Environmental warming and feminization of one of the largest sea turtle populations in the world. Curr. Biol. 28: 154–159.

Joel, D. and 13 others. 2015. Sex beyond the genitalia: The human brain mosaic. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112: 15468–15473.

PubMed Link

Johnson, M. L., A. A. Nagengast and H. K. Salz. 2010. PPS, a large multidomain protein, functions with sex-lethal to regulate alternative splicing in Drosophila. PLOS Genet. 6: e1000872.

PubMed Link

Jordan-Young, R. M. 2010. Brainstorm: The Flaws in the Science of Sex Differences. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Jost, A. 1947. Recerches sur la différenciation sexuelle de l’embryon de lapin. Arch. Anat. Microsc. Morphol. 36: 271–315.

Jost, A. 1953. Problems of fetal endocrinology: The gonadal and hypophyseal hormones. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 8: 379–418.

Kanatsu-Shinohara, M., M. Takehashi, S. Takashima, J. Lee, H. Morimoto, S. Chuma, A. Raducanu, N. Nakatsuji, R. Fässler and T. Shinohara. 2008. Homing of mouse spermatogonial stem cells to germline niche depends on b1-integrin. Cell Stem Cell 3: 533–542.

PubMed Link

Kashimada, K. and P. Koopman. 2010. Sry: The master switch in mammalian sex determination. Development 137: 3921–3930.

PubMed Link

Kashimada, K., E. Pelosi, H. Chen, D. Schlessinger, D. Wilhelm and P. Koopman. 2011. FOXL2 and BMP2 act cooperatively to regulate follistatin gene expression during ovarian development. Endocrinology 152: 272–280.

PubMed Link

Keyes, L. N., T. W. Cline and P. Schedl. 1992. The primary sex determination signal of Drosophila acts at the level of transcription. Cell 68: 933–943.

PubMed Link

Kim, K. S. and J. Kim. 2012. Disorders of sex development. Korean J. Urol. 53: 1-8.

Kim, S., V. J. Bardell and D. Zarkower. 2007. Cell type-autonomous and non-autonomous requirements for Dmrt1 in postnatal testis differentiation. Dev. Biol. 307: 314–325.

PubMed Link

Kobayashi, S., M. Yamada, M. Asaoka and T. Kitamura. 1996. Essential role of the posterior morphogen nanos for germline development in DrosophilaNature 380: 708–711.

PubMed Link

Koopman, P., A. Münsterberg, B. Capel, N. Vivian and A. Lovell-Badge. 1990. Expression of a candidate sex-determining gene during mouse testis differentiation. Nature 348: 450–452.

PubMed Link

Koopman, P., J. Gubbay, N. Vivian, P. Goodfellow and R. Lovell-Badge. 1991. Male development of chromosomally female mice transgenic for SryNature 351: 117–121.

PubMed Link

Koubova, J., D. B. Menke, Q. Zhou, B. Capel, M. D. Griswold and D. C. Page. 2006. Retinoic acid regulates sex-specific timing of meiotic initiation in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103: 2474–2479.

PubMed Link

Krizek, B. A. 2015. Arabidopsis: Flower Development and Patterning. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester.

Kuroki, S. and M. Tachibana. 2018. Epigenetic regulation of mammalian sex determination. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 468: 31–38.

Langman, J. 1981. Medical Embryology, 4th Ed. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD.

Lau, Y. F. and Y. Li. 2009. The human and mouse sex-determining SRY genes repress the Rspol/b-catenin signaling. J. Genet. Genomics 36: 193–202.

PubMed Link

Lavial, F., H. Acloque, E. Bachelard, M. A. Nieto, J. Samarut and B. Pain. 2009. Ectopic expression of CVh (Chicken Vasa homologue) mediates the reprogramming of chicken embryonic stem cells to a germ cell fate. Dev. Biol. 330: 73–82.

PubMed Link

Leclère, L., M. Jager, C. Barreau, P. Chang, H. Le Guyader, M. Manuel and E. Houliston. 2012. Maternally localized germ plasm mRNAs and germ cell/stem cell formation in the cnidarian ClytiaDev. Biol. 364: 236–248.

PubMed Link

Levine, H., N. Jørgensen, A. Martino-Andrade, J. Mendiola, D. Weksler-Derri, I. Mindlis, R. Pinotti and S. H. Swan. 2017. Temporal trends in sperm count: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Hum. Reprod. Update 23: 646–659.

Lillie, F. R. 1917. The freemartin: A study of the actions of sex hormones in foetal life of cattle. J. Exp. Zool. 23: 371–452.

Lindeman, R. E., M. D. Gearhart, A. Minkina, A. D. Krentz, V. J. Bardwell and D. Zarkower. 2015. Sexual cell-fate reprogramming in the ovary by DMRT1. Curr. Biol. 25: 764–771.

PubMed Link

Lister, L. M. and 13 others. 2010. Age-related meiotic segregation errors in mammalian oocytes are preceded by depletion of cohesin and Sgo2. Curr. Biol. 20: 1511–1521.

PubMed Link

Liu, W. M., R. T. K. Pang, P. C. N. Chiu, B. P. C. Wong, K. Lao, K.-F. Lee and W. S. B. Yeung. 2012. Sperm-borne microRNA-34c is required for the first cleavage division in mouse. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109: 490–494.

Lochab, A. K. and C. G. Extavour. 2017. Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) signaling in animal reproductive system development and function. Dev. Biol. 427: 258–269.

Lomniczi, A., J. M. Castellano, O. K. Ronnekleiv, M. Bosch, G. Kaidar, J. G. Knoll, H. Wright, G. P. Pfeifer and S. R. Ojeda. 2013. Epigenetic control of female puberty. Nat. Neurosci. 16: 281–289.

PubMed Link

Longo, F. J. 1997. Fertilization. Chapman and Hall, New York.

Maatouk, D. M., L. DiNapoli, A. Alvers, K. L. Parker, M. M. Taketo and B. Capel. 2008. Stabilization of b-catenin in XY gonads causes male-to-female sex-reversal. Hum. Mol. Genet. 17: 2949–2955.

PubMed Link

Manku, G. and M. Culty. 2015. Mammalian gonocyte and spermatogonia differentiation: Recent advances and remaining challenges. Reproduction 149: R139–R157.

PubMed Link

Margarit, E., M. D. Coll, R. Olivo, D. Gómez, A. Soler and F. Ballesta. 2000. SRY gene transferred to the long arm of the X chromosome in a Y-positive XX true hermaphrodite. Am. J. Med. Genet. 90: 25–28.

PubMed Link

Mark, M., H. Jacobs, M. Oulad-Abdelghani, C. Dennefeld, B. Féret, N. Vernet, C. A. Codreanu, P. Chambon and N. B. Ghyselinck. 2008. STRA8-deficient spermatocytes initiate, but fail to complete, meiosis and undergo premature chromosome condensation. J. Cell Sci. 121: 3233–3242.

PubMed Link

Marx, J. 1995. Mammalian sex determination: Snaring the genes that divide sexes for mammals. Science 269: 1824–1825.

PubMed Link

Mathews, K. W., M. Cavegn and M. Zwicky. 2017. Sexual dimorphism of body size is controlled by dosage of the X-chromosomal gene Myc and by the sex-determining gene tra in Drosophila. Genetics 205: 1215–1228.

Matson, C. K. and D. Zarkower. 2012. Sex and the singular DM domain: Insights into sexual regulation, evolution and plasticity. Nat. Rev. Genet. 13: 163–174.

Matson, C. K., M. W. Murphy, M. D. Griswold, S. Yoshida, V. J. Bardwell and D. Zarkower. 2010. The mammalian doublesex homolog DMRT1 is a transcriptional gatekeeper that controls the mitosis versus meiosis decision in male germ cells. Dev. Cell. 19: 612–624.

PubMed Link

Matson, C. K., M. W. Murphy, A. L. Sarver, M. D. Griswold, V. J. Bardwell, and D. Zarkower. 2011. DMRT1 prevents female reprogramming in the postnatal mammalian testis. Nature 476: 101–104.

Mazahery, A. R., K. Suzuki, A. Nagafuchi, M. Miyajima, N. Nakagata, G. D. Orvis, R. R. Behringer and G. Yamada. 2013. Functional analysis of ectodermal b-catenin during external genitalia formation. Congen. Anom. 53: 34–41.

PubMed Link

McClelland, K., J. Bowles and P. Koopman. 2012. Male sex determination: Insights into molecular mechanisms. Asian J. Androl. 14: 164–171.

PubMed Link

McLaren, A. 1991. Development of the mammalian gonad: The fate of the supporting cell lineage. BioEssays 13: 151–156.

PubMed Link

McLaren, A. 1995. Germ cells and germ cell sex. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 350B: 229–233.

PubMed Link

McLaren, A. and D. Southee. 1997. Entry of mouse embryonic germ cells into meiosis. Dev. Biol. 187: 107-113.

Merke, D. P., S. R. Bornstein, N. A. Avila and G. P. Chrousos. 2002. Future directions in the study and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Ann. Intern. Med. 136: 320–334.

PubMed Link

Meyer, W. J., B. R. Migeon and C. J. Migeon. 1975. Locus on human X chromosome for dihydrotestosterone receptor and androgen insensitivity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 72: 1469–1472.

PubMed Link

Meyerowitz, E. M., D. R. Smyth, and J. L. Bowman. 1989. Abnormal flowers and pattern formation in floral development. Development 106: 209–217.

Migeon, B. R. 2013. Females Are Mosaics: X-Inactivation and Sex Differences in Disease. Oxford University Press, New York.

Migeon, B. R. 2017. Choosing the active X: The human version of X inactivation. Trends Genet. 33: 899–909.

Migeon, C. J. and A. B. Wisniewski. 2000. Human sex differentiation: From transcription factors to gender. Horm. Res. 53: 111–119.

PubMed Link

Mihajlović, A. I., and G. FitzHarris. 2018. Meiosis: SUMO keeps a tight grip on sister chromatids. Curr. Biol. 28: R671–R674.

Mintz, B. 1957. Embryological development of primordial germ cells in the mouse: Influence of a new mutation. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 5: 396–403.

Miyagawa, S. and 10 others. 2009. Genetic interactions of the androgen and Wnt/b-catenin pathways for the masculinization of external genitalia. Mol. Endocrinol. 23: 871–880.

PubMed Link

Mizoguchi, T. and 10 others. 2005. Distinct roles of GIGANTEA in promoting flowering and regulating circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell. 17: 2255–2270.

Molyneaux, K. A., J. Stallock, K. Schaible and C. Wylie. 2001. Time-lapse analysis of living mouse germ cell migration. Dev. Biol. 240: 488–498.

PubMed Link

Morgan, T. H. and C. B. Bridges. 1919. The origin of gynandromorphs. In Contributions to the Study of Drosophila. Publication 278. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC, 1–122.

Mork, L. and B. Capel. 2013. Conserved action of β-catenin during female fate determination in the red-eared slider turtle. Evol. Dev. 15: 96–106.

PubMed Link

Moschall, R., M. Gaik, and J. Medenbach. 2017. Promiscuity in post-transcriptional control of gene expression: Drosophila sex-lethal and its regulatory partnerships. FEBS Lett. 591: 1471–1488.

Mulvey, B. B., U. Olcese, J. R. Cabrera and J. I. Horabin. 2014. An interactive network of long non-coding RNAs facilitates the Drosophila sex determination decision. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1839: 773–784.

PubMed Link

Munné, S. and 11 others. 2007. Maternal age, morphology, development and chromosome abnormalities in over 6000 cleavage-stage embryos. Reprod. Biomed. Online 14: 628–634.

PubMed Link

Murphy, M. W. and 11 others. 2015. An ancient protein-DNA interaction underlying metazoan sex determination. Nat. Struct. Biol. 22: 442–451.

PubMed Link

Nagoshi, R. N., M. McKeown, K. C. Burtis, J. M. Belote and B. S. Baker. 1988. The control of alternative splicing at genes regulating sexual differentiation in D. melanogasterCell 53: 229–236.

PubMed Link

Naillat, F., R. Prunskaite-Hyyryläinen, I. Pietilä, R. Sormunen, T. Jokela, J. Shan and S. J. Vainio. 2010. Wnt4/5a signalling coordinates cell adhesion and entry into meiosis during presumptive ovarian follicle development. Hum. Mol. Genet. 19: 1539–1550.

PubMed Link

Naillat, F. and 10 others. 2015. Identification of the genes regulated by Wnt-4, a critical signal for commitment of the ovary. Exp. Cell Res. 332: 163–178.

PubMed Link

Nakagawa, T., M. Sharma, Y. Nabeshima, R. E. Braun and S. Yoshida. 2010. Functional hierarchy and reversibility within the murine spermatogenic stem cell compartment. Science 328: 62–67.

PubMed Link

Nakagawa. T., T. Zhang, R. Kushi, S. Nakano, T. Endo, M. Nakagawa, N. Yanagihara, D. Zarkower and K. Nakayama. 2017. Regulation of mitosis-meiosis transition by the ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP in male germ cells. Development 144: 4137–4147.

Newton, S. C., O. W. Blaschuk and C. F. Millette. 1993. N-cadherin mediates Sertoli cell-spermatogenic cell adhesion. Dev. Dyn. 197: 1–13.

PubMed Link

Notaguchi, M., M. Abe, T. Kimura, Y. Daimon, T. Kobayashi, A. Yamaguchi, Y. Tomita, K. Dohi, M. Mori and T. Araki. 2008. Long-distance, graft-transmissible action of Arabidopsis flowering locus T protein to promote flowering. Plant Cell Physiol. 49: 1645–1658.

Ottolenghi, C., S. Omari, J. E. Garcia-Ortiz, M. Uda, L. Crisponi, A. Forabosco, G. Pilia and D. Schlessinger. 2005. Foxl2 is required for commitment to ovary differentiation. Hum. Mol. Genet. 14: 2053–2062.

PubMed Link

Palmer, S. J. and S. Burgoyne. 1991. XY follicle cells in the ovaries of XO/XY and XO/XY/XY mosaic mice. Development 111: 1017–1019.

PubMed Link

Parma, P., O. Radi, V. Vidal, M. C. Chaboissier, E. Dellambra, S. Valentini, L. Guerra, A. Schedl and G. Camerino. 2006. R-spondin1 is essential in sex determination, skin differentiation and malignancy. Nat. Genet. 38: 1304–1309.

PubMed Link

Pask, A. and J. A. Graves. 1999. Sex chromosomes and sex-determining genes: Insights from marsupials and monotremes. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 55: 864–875.

PubMed Link

Peer, B. D. and R. W. Motz. 2014. Observations of a bilateral gynandromorph northern cardinal. Wilson J. Ornithol. 126: 778–781.

Pelttari, J. and 10 others. 2001. A meiotic chromosomal core consisting of cohesion complex proteins recruits DNA recombination proteins and promotes synapsis in the absence of an axial element in mammalian meiotic cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 21: 5667–5677.

PubMed Link

Peschon, J. J., R. R. Behringer, R. L. Brinster and R. D. Palmiter. 1987. Spermatid-specific expression of protamine-1 in transgenic mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84: 5316–5319.

PubMed Link

Pfent, C., K. J. Pobursky, D. N. Sather and E. M. Golenberg. 2005. Characterization of SpAPETALA3 and SpPISTILLATA, B class floral identity genes in Spinacia oleracea, and their relationship to sexual dimorphism. Dev. Genes Evol. 215: 132

142.

Picard, M. A., C. Cosseau, G. Mouahid, D. Duval, C. Grunau, È. Toulza, J. F. Allienne and J. Boissier. 2015. The roles of Dmrt (Double sex/Male-abnormal-3 related transcription factor) genes in sex determination and differentiation mechanisms: Ubiquity and diversity across the animal kingdom. C. R. Biol. 338: 451–462.

PubMed Link

Pieau, C., N. Girondot, G. Richard-Mercier, M. Desvages, P. Dorizzi and P. Zaborski. 1994. Temperature sensitivity of sexual differentiation of gonads in the European pond turtle. J. Exp. Zool. 270: 86–93.

Pinkerton, J. H. M., D. G. McKay, E. C. Adams and A. T. Hertig. 1961. Development of the human ovary: A study using histochemical techniques. Obstet. Gynecol. 18: 152–181.

Pisarska, M. D., G. Barlow and F. T. Kuo. 2011. Minireview: Roles of the forkhead transcription factor FOXL2 in granulosa cell biology and pathology. Endocrinology. 152: 1199–1208.

PubMed Link

Pontiggia, A., R. Rimini, V. R. Harley, P. N. Goodfellow, R. Lovell-Badge and M. E. Bianchi. 1994. Sex-reversing mutations affect the architecture of Sry/DNA complexes. EMBO J. 13: 6115–6124.

PubMed Link

Pratt, S. A., N. F. Scully and B. D. Shur. 1993. Cell surface b-1,4-galactosyltransferase on primary spermatocytes facilitates their initial adhesion to Sertoli cells in vitro. Biol. Reprod. 49: 470–482.

PubMed Link

Qin, Y. and C. E. Bishop. 2005. Sox9 is sufficient for functional testis development producing fertile male mice in the absence of Sry. Hum. Mol. Genet. 14: 1221–1229.

PubMed Link

Rahmoun, M. and 17 others. 2017. In mammalian foetal testes, SOX9 regulates expression of its target genes by binding to genomic regions with conserved signatures. Nucleic Acids Res. 45: 7191–7211.

Raznahan, A. and 13 others. 2018. Sex-chromosome dosage effects on gene expression in humans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 115: 7398–7403.

Reijo, R. and 12 others. 1995. Diverse spermatogenic defects in humans caused by Y chromosome deletions encompassing a novel RNA-binding protein gene. Nat. Genet. 10: 383–393.

PubMed Link

Revenkova, E., K. Herrmann, C. Adelfalk and R. Jessberger. 2010. Oocyte cohesin expression restricted to predictyate stages provides full fertility and prevents aneuploidy. Curr. Biol. 20: 1529–1533.

PubMed Link

Rey, R., N. Josso, and C. Racine C. 2016. Sexual differentiation. In L. J. De Groot et al. (eds.), Endotext [Internet]. MDText.com, Inc., South Dartmouth, MA.

Richardson, B. E. and R. Lehmann. 2010. Mechanisms guiding primordial germ cell migration: Strategies from different organisms. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 11: 37–49.

PubMed Link

Rideout, E. J., M. S. Narsaiya and S. S. Grewal. 2015. The sex determination gene transformer regulates male-female differences in Drosophila body size. PLOS Genet. 11: e1005683.

Roberts, H. F. 1929. Plant Hybridization before Mendel. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

Roberts, L. M., Y. Hirokawa, M. W. Nachtigal and H. A. Ingraham. 1999. Paracrine-mediated apoptosis in reproductive tract development. Dev. Biol. 208: 110–122.

PubMed Link

Roberts, L. M., J. A. Visser and H. A. Ingraham. 2002. Involvement of a matrix metalloproteinase in MIS-induced cell death during urogenital development. Development 129: 1487–1496.

PubMed Link

Ronai, I., V. Vergoz, and B. P. Oldroyd. 2016. The mechanistic, genetic and evolutionary basis of worker sterility in the social Hymenoptera. Adv. Stud. Behav. 48: 251–317.

Rossi, P. and S. Dolci. 2013. Paracrine mechanisms involved in control of early stages of mammalian spermatogenesis. Front. Endocrinol. 4: 181.

PubMed Link

Ryner, L. C. and B. S. Baker. 1991. Regulation of doublesex pre-mRNA processing occurs by 3′ splice site activation. Genes Dev. 5: 2071–2085.

PubMed Link

Saga, Y. 2008. Mouse germ cell development during embryogenesis. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 18: 337–341.

PubMed Link

Saitou, M. and M. Yamaji. 2012. Primordial germ cells in mice. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 4: a008375.

Sakuno, T. and Y. Watanabe. 2009. Studies of meiosis disclose distinct roles of cohesion in the core centromere and pericentromeric regions. Chromosome Res. 17: 239–249.

PubMed Link

Salz, H. K. 2011. Sex determination in insects: A binary decision based on alternative splicing. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 21: 395–400.

PubMed Link

Sariola, H. and M. Saarma. 1999. GDNF and its receptors in the regulation of the ureteric branching. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 43: 413–418.

PubMed Link

Scherthan, H. 2007. Telomere attachment and clustering during meiosis. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 64: 117–124.

PubMed Link

Schmahl, J., Y. Kim, J. S. Colvin, D. M. Ornitz and B. Capel. 2004. Fgf9 induces proliferation and nuclear localization of FgfR2 in Sertoli precursors during male sex determination. Development 131: 3627–3636.

PubMed Link

Schöckel, L., M. Möckel, B. Mayer, D. Boos and O. Stemmann. 2011. Cleavage of cohesin rings coordinates the separation of centrioles and chromatids. Nat. Cell Biol. 13: 966–972.

PubMed Link

Schug, T. T. and 11 others. 2016. Minireview: Endocrine disruptors: past lessons and future directions. Mol. Endocrinol. 30: 833–847.

Schuh, M. and J. Ellenberg. 2008. A new model for asymmetric spindle positioning in mouse oocytes. Curr. Biol. 18: 1986–1992.

PubMed Link

Schwarz-Sommer, Z., P. Huijser, W. Nacken, H. Saedler and H. Sommer. 1990. Genetic control of flower development by homeotic genes in Antirrhinum majus. Science 250: 931–936.

Sefton, L., J. R. Timmer, Y. Zhang, F. Béranger and T. W. Cline. 2000. An extracellular activator of the Drosophila JAK/STAT pathway is a sex-determination signal element. Nature 405: 970–973.

PubMed Link

Sekido, R. and R. Lovell-Badge. 2008. Sex determination involves synergistic action of Sry and Sf1 on a specific Sox9 enhancer. Nature 453: 930–934.

PubMed Link

Sekido, R. and R. Lovell-Badge. 2009. Sex determination and SRY: Down to a wink and a nudge? Trends Genet. 25: 19–29.

PubMed Link

Sekido, R., I. Bar, V. Narvárez, G. Penny and R. Lovell-Badge. 2004. SOX9 is up-regulated by the transient expression of SRY specifically in Sertoli cell precursors. Dev. Biol. 274: 271–279.

PubMed Link

Severance, A. L. and K. E. Latham. 2018. Meeting the meiotic challenge: Specializations in mammalian oocyte spindle formation. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 85: 178–187.

Severson, A. F., G. von Dassow and B. Bowerman. 2016. Oocyte meiotic spindle assembly and function. Curr. Top. Dev. Biol. 116: 65–98.

PubMed Link

Sharma, U. and 19 others. 2016. Biogenesis and function of tRNA fragments during sperm maturation and fertilization in mammals. Science 351: 391–396.

PubMed Link

Sharma, U., F. Sun, C. C. Conine, B. Reichholf, S. Kukreja, V. A. Herzog, S. L. Ameres and O. J. Rando. 2018. Small RNAs are trafficked from the epididymis to developing mammalian sperm. Dev. Cell 46: 481–494.

Shen, W.-H., C. C. D. Moore, Y. Ikeda, K. L. Parker and H. A. Ingraham. 1994. Nuclear receptor steroidogenic factor 1 regulates the Müllerian-inhibiting substance gene: A link to the sex determination cascade. Cell 77: 651–661.

PubMed Link

Shoemaker, C. M., J. Queen, and D. Crews. 2007. Response of candidate sex-determining genes to changes in temperature reveals their involvement in the molecular network underlying temperature-dependent sex determination. Mol. Endocrinol. 21: 2750–2763.

Siiteri, P. K. and J. D. Wilson. 1974. Testosterone formation and metabolism during male sexual differentiation in the human embryo. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metabol. 38: 113–125.

PubMed Link

Sinclair, A. H., P. Berta, M. S. Palmer, J. R. Hawkins, B. L. Griffiths, M. J. Smith, J. W. Foster, A. M. Frischauf, R. Lovell-Badge and P. N. Goodfellow. 1990. A gene from the human sex-determining region encodes a protein with homology to a conserved DNA-binding motif. Nature 346: 240–244.

PubMed Link

Siu, M. K. Y. and C. Y. Cheng. 2004. Dynamic cross-talk between cells and the extracellular matrix in the testis. BioEssays 26: 978–992.

PubMed Link

Smith, C. A. and A. H. Sinclair. 2001. Sex determination in the chicken embryo. J. Exp. Zool. 290: 691–699.

Smith, C. A., C. M. Shoemaker, K. N. Roeszler, J. Queen, D. Crews and A. H. Sinclair. 2008. Cloning and expression of R-Spondin1 in different vertebrates suggests a conserved role in ovarian development. BMC Dev. Biol. 8: 72.

PubMed Link

Smith, C. A., K. N. Roeszler, T. Ohnesorg, D. M. Cummins, P. G. Farlie, T. J. Doran and A. H. Sinclair. 2009. The avian Z-linked gene DMRT1 is required for male sex determination in the chicken. Nature 461: 267–271.

PubMed Link

Song, H. W. and M. F. Wilkinson. 2014. Transcriptional control of spermatogonial maintenance and differentiation. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 30: 14–26.

Song, S., T. Qi, H. Huang, and D. Xie. 2013. Regulation of stamen development by coordinated actions of jasmonate, auxin, and gibberellin in Arabidopsis. Mol. Plant 6: 1065–1073.

Spiller, C., P. Koopman, and J. Bowles. 2017. Sex determination in the mammalian germline. Ann. Rev. Genet. 51: 265–285.

Stevens, N. M. 1905. Studies in Spermatogenesis with Especial Reference to the “Accessory Chromosome.”  Publication 36. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.

Suskin, A. 2002. Bet you didn’t know...what the Talmud says about gender identity. Lilith. https://www.lilith.org/articles/bet-you-didnt-know-what-the-talmud-says-about-gender-ambiguity/.

Taiz, L. and L. Taiz. 2017. Flora Unveiled: The Discovery and Denial of Sex in Plants. Oxford University Press, New York.

Tanaka, S. S. and R. Nishinakamura. 2014. Regulation of male sex determination: Genital ridge formation and Sry activation in mice. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 71: 4781–4802.

PubMed Link

Tanaka, S. S., Y. L. Yamaguchi, B. Rsoi, H. Lickert and P. P. Tam. 2005. IFITM/Mil/fragilis family proteins IFITM1 and IFITM3 play distinct roles in mouse primordial germ cell homing and repulsion. Dev. Cell 9: 745–756. 

PubMed Link

Tarbashevich, K. and E. Raz. 2010. The nuts and bolts of germ-cell migration. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 22: 715–721.

PubMed Link

Theißen, G. 2001. Development of floral organ identity: Stories from the MADS house. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 4: 75–85.

Theißen, G., R. Melzer and F. Rümpler. 2016. MADS-domain transcription factors and the floral quartet model of flower development: linking plant development and evolution. Development 143: 3259–3271.

Thigpen, A. E., D. L. Davis, T. Gautier, J. Imperato-McGinley and D. W. Russell. 1992. The molecular basis of steroid 5a-reductase deficiency in a large Dominican kindred. N. Engl. J. Med. 327: 1216–1219.

PubMed Link

Tiwari, M. and S. K. Chaube. 2017. Maturation promoting factor destabilization mediates human chorionic gonadotropin induced meiotic resumption in rat oocytes. Dev. Growth Differ. 59: 603–614.

Tokue, M. and 18 others. 2017. SHISA6 confers resistance to differentiation-promoting Wnt/β-Catenin signaling in mouse spermatogenic stem cells. Stem Cell Rep. 8: 561–575.

Tran, D., N. Meusy-Dessolle and N. Josso. 1977. Anti-Müllerian hormone is a functional marker of foetal Sertoli cells. Nature 269: 411–412.

PubMed Link

Trelstad, R. L., A. Hayashi, K. Hayashi and P. K. Donahoe. 1982. The epithelial-mesenchymal interface of the male rate Müllerian duct: Loss of basement membrane integrity and ductal regression. Dev. Biol. 92: 27–40.

PubMed Link

Tsai, J. H. and B. D. McKee. 2011. Homologous pairing and the role of pairing centers in meiosis. J. Cell Sci. 124: 1955–1963.

PubMed Link

Uhlenhaut, N. H. and 14 others. 2009. Somatic sex reprogramming of adult ovaries to testes by FOXL2 ablation. Cell 139: 1130–1142.

PubMed Link

Vainio, S., M. Heikkilä, A. Kispert, A. Chin and A. P. McMahon. 1999. Female development in mammals is regulated by Wnt4 signalling. Nature 397: 405–409.

PubMed Link

Valcarcel, J., R. Singh, P. D. Zamore and M. R. Green. 1993. The protein Sex-lethal antagonizes the splicing factor U2AF to regulate alternative splicing of transformer pre-mRNA. Nature 362: 171–175.

PubMed Link

Valverde, F., A. Mouradov, W. Soppe, D. Ravenscroft, A. Samach, and G. Coupland. 2004. Photoreceptor regulation of CONSTANS protein in photoperiodic flowering. Science 303: 1003–1006.

Vandenberg, L.N. and 11 others. 2012. Hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: Low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose responses. Endocrinol. Rev. 33: 378–455.

Verhulst, E. C. and L. van der Zande. 2015. Double nexus—Doublesex is the connecting element in sex determination. Brief. Funct. Genomics 14: 396–406.

Vidal, V. P. I., M.-C. Chaboissier, D. G. de Rooij and A. Schedl. 2001. Sox9 induces testis development in XX transgenic mice. Nat. Genet. 28: 216–217.

PubMed Link

Villeneuve, A. M. and K. J. Hillers. 2001. Whence meiosis? Cell 106: 647–650.

PubMed Link

von Wettstein, D. 1984. The synaptonemal complex and genetic segregation. In C. W. Evans and H. G. Dickinson (eds.), Controlling Events in Meiosis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 195–231.

Washburn, L. L. and E. M. Eicher. 1989. Normal testis determination in the mouse depends on genetic interaction of a locus on chromosome 17 and the Y chromosome. Genetics 123: 173–179.

PubMed Link

Wei, Y. L. and W. X. Yang. 2018. The acroframosome-acroplaxome-manchette axis may function in sperm head shaping and male fertility. Gene 660: 28–40.

Werling, D. M., N. N. Parikshak, and D. H. Geschwind. 2016. Gene expression in human brain implicates sexually dimorphic pathways in autism spectrum disorders. Nat. Commun. 7: 10717.

Werner, M. H., J. R. Huth, A. M. Groneborn and G. M. Clore. 1995. Molecular basis of human 46X,Y sex reversal revealed from the three-dimensional solution structure of the human SRY–DNA complex. Cell 81: 705–714.

PubMed Link

Wigge, P. A., M. C. Kim, K. E. Jaeger, W. Busch, M. Schmid, J. U. Lohmann and D. Weigel. 2005. Integration of spatial and temporal information during floral induction in Arabidopsis. Science 309: 1056–1059.

Wilhelm, D., L. L. Washburn, V. Truong, M. Fellous, E. M. Eicher and P. Koopman. 2009. Antagonism of the testis- and ovary-determining pathways during ovotestis development in mice. Mech. Dev. 126: 324–336.

PubMed Link

Wilkins, J. F. 2005. Genomic imprinting and methylation: Epigenetic canalization and conflict. Trends Genet. 21: 356–365.

PubMed Link

Willerton, L., R. A. Smith, D. Russell and S. Mackay. 2004. Effects of FGF9 on embryonic Sertoli cell proliferation and testicular cord formation in the mouse. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 48: 637–643.

PubMed Link

Wilson, E. B. 1905. The chromosomes in relation to the determination of sex in insects. Science 22: 500–502.

Wilson, E. B. 1924. The Cell in Development and Heredity, 3rd Ed. MacMillan, New York, p. 14 and p. 550.

Wynne, D. J., O. Rog, P. M. Carlton and A. F. Dernburg. 2012. Dynein-dependent processive chromosome motions promote homologous pairing in C. elegans meiosis. J. Cell Biol. 196: 47–64.

Yamamoto, A., T. Omotehara, Y. Miura, T. Takada, N. Yoneda, T. Hirano, Y. Mantani, H. Kitagawa, T. Yokoyama and N. Hoshi. 2018. The mechanisms underlying the effects of AMH on Müllerian duct regression in male mice. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 80: 557–567.

Yang, F. and P. J. Wang. 2009. The mammalian synaptonemal complex: A scaffold and beyond. Genome Dyn. 5: 69–80.

PubMed Link

Yanovsky, M. J. and S. A. Kay. 2002. Molecular basis of seasonal time measurement in Arabidopsis. Nature 419: 308–312.

Yao, H. H., M. M. Matzuk, C. J. Jorgez, D. B. Menke, D. C. Page, A. Swain and B. Capel. 2004. Follistatin operates downstream of Wnt4 in mammalian ovary organogenesis. Dev. Dyn. 230: 210–215.

PubMed Link

Yoshida, S. 2016. From cyst to tubule: Innovations in vertebrate spermatogenesis. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Dev. Biol. 5: 119–131.

PubMed Link

Yoshida, S., M. Sukeno and Y. Nabeshima. 2007. A vasculature-associated niche for undifferentiated spermatogonia in the mouse testis. Science 317: 1722–1726.

PubMed Link

Zhang, J., M. Zhang, D. Acampora, M. Vojtak, D. Yuan, A. Simeone and I. Chambers. 2018. OTX2 restricts entry to the mouse germline. Nature 562: 595–599.

Zhao, D., D. McBridge, S. Nandi, H. A. McQueen, M. J. McGrew, P. M. Hocking, P. D. Lewis, H. M. Sang and M. Clinton. 2010. Somatic sex identity is cell-autonomous in the chicken. Nature 464: 237–242.

PubMed Link

Zhao, F., H. L. Franco, K. F. Rodriguez, P. R. Brown, M. J. Tsai, S. Y. Tsai, and H. H. Yao. 2017. Elimination of the male reproductive tract in the female embryo is promoted by COUP-TFII in mice. Science 357: 717–720.

Zhao, G.-Q., K. Deng, P. A. Labosky, L. Liaw and B. L. M. Hogan. 1996. The gene encoding bone morphogenetic protein 8B is required for the initiation and maintenance of spermatogenesis in the mouse. Genes Dev. 10: 1657–1669.

PubMed Link

Zhao, L., T. Svingen, E. T. Ng and P. Koopman. 2015. Female-to-male sex reversal in mice caused by transgenic overexpression of Dmrt1Development 142: 1083–1088.

PubMed Link

Zickler, D. and N. Kleckner. 2015. Recombination, pairing, and synapsis of homologs during meiosis. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 7: a016626.

Back to top